Red thread disease is a fungal infection found on lawns and other turfed areas. It is caused by the corticioid fungus "Laetisaria fuciformis" and has two separate stages. The stage that gives the infection its name is characterised by very thin, red, needle-like strands extending from the grass blade. These are stromata, which can remain viable in soil for two years. After germinating, the stromata infect grass leaf blades through their stomata. The other stage is visible as small, pink, cotton wool-like mycelium, found where the blades meet. It is common when both warmth and humidity are high.

Environment

"Laetisaria fuciformis", the fungus that causes red thread disease develops more often in cool (59-77°F) and wet conditions. These conditions are more present in the spring and fall when rainfall is higher and temperatures are slightly lower. Turf grass that is poor in nutrition and are slow growing are areas that are more susceptible to red thread disease. The fungus grows from the thread like red webbing structures called sclerotia. The sclerotia can survive in leaf blades, thatch, and soil for months to years. These areas that have been infected spread the disease by water, wind, and contaminated equipment. Since this fungus can survive for long periods of time it is essential to cure the infected area so further spreading of the disease does not occur.

Management

Managing red thread disease first starts by providing conditions that are not favorable for the fungal disease to develop. Having a balanced and adequate nitrogen fertilization program helps suppress the disease. This includes applying mild to substantial amounts of phosphorus and potassium to the turf. Other than properly fertilizing the turf, it is very important to maintain a soil pH between 6.5 and 7. Having a more basic pH creates less favorable conditions for a fungus to form. Reducing shade on turf areas also reduces chances of the fungal disease to form because shaded areas create a higher humidity near the turfs surface. Another technique to suppressing red thread disease is top dressing with compost. Suppression of the disease increases with the increase of compost used on the turf. Fungicides are not recommended to control red thread because the cost of chemical control is expensive and turf grasses usually recover from the disease quickly. If the use of fungicides is necessary, products containing strobilurins can be applied and can be very effective if applied before symptoms occur.

Hosts and symptoms

The hosts of the red thread disease only include turf grass. Turf grass is primarily present on home lawns and athletic fields. Some of these turf grass species include annual bluegrass, creeping bentgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, pereninial ryegrass, fine fescue, and bermudagrass. These species of grass are not the only types of turf that can be diagnosed with red thread disease but are the most common hosts. Noticeable symptoms of red thread disease are irregular yellow patches on the turf that are 2 to 24 inches in diameter. Affected areas are diagnosed with faintly pinkish web like sclerotia on the leaf blades. This sclerotia is the fungus growing on the leaf blades. This sclerotia has a reddish to pink spider web look to it.

The first signs of infection are small irregular patches of brown/yellowing grass. Upon closer inspection, either the tiny red needles or the pink fluffy mycelium will be visible. As the infection spreads, the small patches will join to form large brown areas.

Freckles are clusters of concentrated melaninized cells which are most easily visible on people with a fair complexion. Freckles do not have an increased number of the melanin-producing cells, or melanocytes, but instead have melanocytes that overproduce melanin granules (melanosomes) changing the coloration of the outer skin cells (keratinocytes). As such, freckles are different from lentigines and moles.

Red wine headache ("RWH") is a headache often accompanied by nausea and flushing that occurs in many people after drinking even a single glass of red wine. This syndrome can sometimes develop within 15 minutes of consumption of the wine.

The condition does not occur after consumption of white wine or other alcoholic beverages. Some individuals report that they get a migraine headache hours later from drinking some red wines. No one knows for certain why this syndrome occurs. It probably has more than one cause.

The formation of freckles is triggered by exposure to sunlight. The exposure to UV-B radiation activates melanocytes to increase melanin production, which can cause freckles to become darker and more visible. This means that you may have never developed freckles before, but after extended exposure to sunlight, they may suddenly appear.

Freckles are predominantly found on the face, although they may appear on any skin exposed to the sun, such as arms or shoulders. Heavily distributed concentrations of melanin may cause freckles to multiply and cover an entire area of skin, such as the face. Freckles are rare on infants, and more commonly found on children before puberty.

Upon exposure to the sun, freckles will reappear if they have been altered with creams or lasers and not protected from the sun, but do fade with age in some cases.

Freckles are not a skin disorder, but people with freckles generally have a lower concentration of photo-protective melanin, and are therefore more susceptible to the harmful effects of UV radiation. It is suggested that people whose skin tends to freckle should avoid overexposure to sun and use sunscreen.

Poikiloderma of Civatte is a cutaneous condition and refers to reticulated red to red-brown patches with telangiectasias. It is identifiable as the reddish brown discoloration on sides of the neck, usually on both sides. It is more common with women than men and more commonly effects middle-aged to elderly women. "Poikiloderma" is basically a change of the skin due to dilation of the blood vessels in the neck. "Civatte" was the French dermatologist who first identified it in the 1920s.

When skin is blanched, it takes on a whitish appearance as blood flow to the region is prevented. This occurs during and is the basis of the physiologic test known as diascopy.

Blanching of the fingers is also one of the most clinically evident signs of Raynaud's phenomenon.

Blanching is prevented in gangrene as the red blood corpuscles are extravasated and impart red color to the gangrenous part.

Disseminated superficial actinic porokeratosis (DSAP) is a non-contagious skin condition with apparent genetic origin in the SART3 gene. It most often presents in sun-exposed areas of the body. Some DSAP cases have been reported in patients with acute immune compromised situations, particularly in the elderly. For those with sun damaged skin, the lesions usually begin to appear in the patient's 20s and increase in number and visibility in the 40s or 50s. Commonly, though not always, the number and visibility of lesions is in direct proportion to the amount of sun damage to the affected area.

Lesions generally are characterized by an irregularly shaped thread-like ring that is usually the size of a pencil eraser, though lesions vary and may be half or double that size. The thread-like ring is very thin, much like fabric thread for sewing, and raised such that it is both palpable and visible. The interior of the ring may be rough like sandpaper, or smooth. The interior is often discolored, though colors vary from patient to patient. Lesions, due to their vascular nature, can also vary according to body temperature, environmental temperatures, and other external stimuli. The internal ring color is most often reddish, purplish, pink, or brown.

Some patients report itching and irritation associated with the condition, and many report no notable sensation. Although no known hormonal link has been found, DSAP occurs more commonly in women.

A study in 2000 was done on a Chinese family, in which a locus for a gene was located.

A range of types of wart have been identified, varying in shape and site affected, as well as the type of human papillomavirus involved. These include:

- Common wart ("Verruca vulgaris"), a raised wart with roughened surface, most common on hands, but can grow anywhere on the body. Sometimes known as a Palmer wart or Junior wart.

- Flat wart ("Verruca plana"), a small, smooth flattened wart, flesh-coloured, which can occur in large numbers; most common on the face, neck, hands, wrists and knees.

- Filiform or digitate wart, a thread- or finger-like wart, most common on the face, especially near the eyelids and lips.

- Genital wart (venereal wart, "Condyloma acuminatum", "Verruca acuminata"), a wart that occurs on the genitalia.

- Mosaic wart, a group of tightly clustered plantar-type warts, commonly on the hands or soles of the feet.

- Periungual wart, a cauliflower-like cluster of warts that occurs around the nails.

- Plantar wart (verruca, "Verruca plantaris"), a hard sometimes painful lump, often with multiple black specks in the center; usually only found on pressure points on the soles of the feet.

Many wines contain a warning label about sulfites, and some people believe that sulfites are the cause of RWH and other allergic and pseudoallergic reactions. However, this may not be the case. Dried fruit and processed foods like lunch meat have more sulfites than red wine. Reactions to sulfites are not considered a "true allergy" and reactions more commonly occur in persons with asthma and may manifest themselves in difficulty breathing or skin reactions, rather than headache. It is unclear if consuming alcohol in combination with sulfites may have a different effect.

Some wines may be exempt from including a sulfite warning. Wines that have under 10mg/l of sulfites do not need to be labeled that they contain sulfites. This includes added and natural sulfites, like sulfites that come from the soil, or those produced by yeasts during alcoholic fermentation. Wines labeled "100% Organic", "Organic", "Made With Organic Grapes", "Made With Organic and Non-Organic Grapes" or without organic certification may contain sulfites, and must disclose this on the label. This also means that the so called "Natural" wine can also contain sulfites. Different rules might apply in different continents.

Ainhum (from Portuguese, pronounced "īn-yoom´", "i´num" or "ān´hum"; also known as dactylolysis spontanea) is a painful constriction of the base of the fifth toe frequently followed by bilateral spontaneous autoamputation a few years later.

The groove begins on the lower and internal side of the base of the fifth toe, usually according to the plantar-digital fold. The groove becomes gradually deeper and more circular. The rate of spread is variable, and the disease may progress to a full circle in a few months, or still be incomplete after years. In about 75 per cent both feet are affected, though not usually to the same degree. There is no case reported where it begins in any other toe than the fifth, while there is occasionally a groove on the fourth or third toe. The distal part of the toe swells and appears like a small “potato”. The swelling is due to lymphatic edema distal to the constriction. After a time crusts can appear in the groove which can be infected with staphylococcus.

While the groove becomes deeper, compression of tendons, vessels and nerves occurs. Bone is absorbed by pressure, without any evidence of infection. After a certain time all structures distal the stricture are reduced to an avascular cord. The toe’s connection to the foot becomes increasingly slender, and if it is not amputated, it spontaneously drops off without any bleeding. Normally it takes about five years for an autoamputation to occur.

Cole describes four stages of ainhum:

Pain is present in about 78% of cases. Slight pain is present in the earliest stage of ainhum, caused by pressure on the underlying nerves. Fracture of the phalanx or chronic sepsis is accompanied with severe pain.

Warts are typically small, rough, and hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in symptoms except when on the bottom of the feet where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the hands and feet they can also affect other locations. One or many warts may appear. They are not cancerous.

Warts are caused by infection with a type of human papillomavirus (HPV). Factors that increase the risk include use of public showers, working with meat, eczema, and a low immune system. The virus is believed to enter the body through skin that has been damaged slightly. A number of types exist including: common warts, plantar warts, filiform warts, and genital warts. Genital warts are often sexually transmitted.

Without treatment, most types of warts resolve in months to years. A number of treatments may speed resolution including salicylic acid applied to the skin and cryotherapy. In those who are otherwise healthy they do not typically result in significant problems. Treatment of genital warts differs from that of other types.

Warts are very common, with most people being infected at some point in their life. The estimated current rate of non-genital warts among the general population is 1–13%. They are more common among young people. Estimated rates of genital warts in sexually active women is 12%. Warts have been described at least as far back as 400 BC by Hippocrates.

Mule spinners' cancer or mule-spinners' cancer was a cancer, an epithelioma of the scrotum. It was first reported in 1887 in a cotton mule spinner. In 1926, a British Home Office committee strongly favoured the view that this form of cancer was caused by the prolonged action of mineral oils on the skin of the scrotum, and of these oils, shale oil was deemed to be the most carcinogenic. From 1911 to 1938, there were 500 deaths amongst cotton mule-spinners from cancer of the scrotum, but only three amongst wool mule spinners.

Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions. The diseases are less prevalent in temperate climates, due in part to the occurrence of a cold season, which controls the insect population by forcing hibernation. However, many were present in northern Europe and northern America in the 17th and 18th centuries before modern understanding of disease causation. The initial impetus for tropical medicine was to protect the health of colonialists, notably in India under the British Raj. Insects such as mosquitoes and flies are by far the most common disease carrier, or vector. These insects may carry a parasite, bacterium or virus that is infectious to humans and animals. Most often disease is transmitted by an insect "bite", which causes transmission of the infectious agent through subcutaneous blood exchange. Vaccines are not available for most of the diseases listed here, and many do not have cures.

Human exploration of tropical rainforests, deforestation, rising immigration and increased international air travel and other tourism to tropical regions has led to an increased incidence of such diseases.

Brown lung can ultimately result in narrowing of the airways, lung scarring and death from infection or respiratory failure.

Byssinosis, also called "brown lung disease" or "Monday fever", is an occupational lung disease caused by exposure to cotton dust in inadequately ventilated working environments. Byssinosis commonly occurs in workers who are employed in yarn and fabric manufacture industries. It is now thought that the cotton dust directly causes the disease and some believe that the causative agents are endotoxins that come from the cell walls of gram-negative bacteria that grow on the cotton. Although bacterial endotoxin is a likely cause, the absence of similar symptoms in workers in other industries exposed to endotoxins makes this uncertain.

Of the 81 byssinosis-related fatalities reported in the United States between 1990 and 1999, 48% included an occupation in the yarn, thread, and fabric industry on the victim's death certificate. This disease often occurred in the times of the industrial revolution. Most commonly young girls working in mills or other textile factories would be afflicted with this disease. In the United States, from 1996 to 2005, North Carolina accounted for about 37% of all deaths caused by byssinosis, with 31, followed by South Carolina (8) and Georgia (7).

The term "brown lung" is a misnomer, as the lungs of affected individuals are not brown.

Light infestations (<100 worms) frequently have no symptoms. Heavier infestations, especially in small children, can present gastrointestinal problems including abdominal pain and distension, bloody or mucus-filled diarrhea, and tenesmus (feeling of incomplete defecation, generally accompanied by involuntary straining). Mechanical damage to the intestinal mucosa may occur, as well as toxic or inflammatory damage to the intestines of the host. While appendicitis may be brought on by damage and edema of the adjacent tissue, if there are large numbers of worms or larvae present, it has been suggested that the embedding of the worms into the ileocecal region may also make the host susceptible to bacterial infection. A severe infection with high numbers of embedded worms in the rectum leads to edema, which can cause rectal prolapse, although this is typically only seen in small children. The prolapsed, inflamed and edematous rectal tissue may even show visible worms.

Growth retardation, weight loss, nutritional deficiencies, and anemia (due to long-standing blood loss) are also characteristic of infection, and these symptoms are more prevalent and severe in children. It does not commonly cause eosinophilia.

Coinfection of "T. trichiura" with other parasites is common and with larger worm burdens can cause both exacerbation of dangerous trichuriasis symptoms such as massive gastrointestinal bleeding (shown to be especially dramatic with coinfection with "Salmonella typhi") and exacerbation of symptoms and pathogenesis of the other parasitic infection (as is typical with coinfection with "Schistosoma mansoni", in which higher worm burden and liver egg burden is common). Parasitic coinfection with HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria is also common, especially in Sub-saharan Africa, and helminth coinfection adversely affects the natural history and progression of HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria and can increase clinical malaria severity. In a study performed in Senegal, infections of soil-transmitted helminths like "T. trichiura" (as well as schistosome infections independently) showed enhanced risk and increased the incidence of malaria.

Heavy infestations may have bloody diarrhea. Long-standing blood loss may lead to iron-deficiency anemia. Vitamin A deficiency may also result due to infection.

Hepatization is conversion into a substance resembling the liver; a state of the lungs when gorged with effused matter, so that they are no longer pervious to the air. Red hepatization is when there are red blood cells, neutrophils, and fibrin in the pulmonary alveolus/ alveoli; it precedes gray hepatization, where the red cells have been broken down leaving a fibrinosuppurative exudate. The main cause is lobar pneumonia.

Chromophobia (also known as chromatophobia or chrematophobia) is a persistent, irrational fear of, or aversion to, colors and is usually a conditioned response. While actual clinical phobias to color are rare, colors can elicit hormonal responses and psychological reactions.

Chromophobia may also refer to an aversion of use of color in products or design. Within cellular biology, "chromophobic" cells are a classification of cells that do not attract hematoxylin, and is related to chromatolysis.

Trichuriasis, also known as whipworm infection, is an infection by the parasitic worm "Trichuris trichiura" (whipworm). If infection is only with a few worms, there are often no symptoms. In those who are infected with many worms, there may be abdominal pain, tiredness and diarrhea. The diarrhea sometimes contains blood. Infections in children may cause poor intellectual and physical development. Low red blood cell levels may occur due to loss of blood.

The disease is usually spread when people eat food or drink water that contains the eggs of these worms. This may occur when contaminated vegetables are not fully cleaned or cooked. Often these eggs are in the soil in areas where people defecate outside and where untreated human feces is used as fertilizer. These eggs originate from the feces of infected people. Young children playing in such soil and putting their hands in their mouths also become infected easily. The worms live in the large bowel and are about four centimetres in length. Whipworm is diagnosed by seeing the eggs when examining the stool with a microscope. Eggs are barrel-shaped. Trichuriasis belongs to the group of soil-transmitted helminthiases.

Prevention is by properly cooking food and hand washing before cooking. Other measures include improving access to sanitation such as ensuring use of functional and clean toilets and access to clean water. In areas of the world where the infections are common, often entire groups of people will be treated all at once and on a regular basis. Treatment is with three days of the medication: albendazole, mebendazole or ivermectin. People often become infected again after treatment.

Whipworm infection affected about 464 million in 2015. It is most common in tropical countries. In the developing world, those infected with whipworm often also have hookworms and ascariasis infections. They have a large effect on the economy of many countries. Work is ongoing to develop a vaccine against the disease. Trichuriasis is classified as a neglected tropical disease.

The most spectacular symptom of lymphatic filariasis is elephantiasis, a stage 3 lymphedema with thickening of the skin and underlying tissues. This was the first mosquito-borne disease to be discovered. Elephantiasis results when the parasites lodge in the lymphatic system and cause blockages to the flow of lymph. Infections usually begin in childhood.

The skin condition the disease causes is called "elephantiasis tropica" (also known as "elephantiasis arabum").

Elephantiasis mainly affects the lower extremities; the ears, mucous membranes, and amputation stumps are affected less frequently. However, various species of filarial worms tend to affect different parts of the body: "Wuchereria bancrofti" can affect the arms, breasts, legs, scrotum, and vulva (causing hydrocele formation), while "Brugia timori" rarely affects the genitals. Those who develop the chronic stages of elephantiasis are usually amicrofilaraemic and often have adverse immunological reactions to the microfilariae as well as the adult worms.

The subcutaneous worms present with skin rashes, urticarial papules, and arthritis, as well as hyper- and hypopigmentation macules. "Onchocerca volvulus" manifests itself in the eyes, causing "river blindness" (onchocerciasis), one of the leading causes of blindness in the world.

Serous cavity filariasis presents with symptoms similar to subcutaneous filariasis, in addition to abdominal pain, because these worms are also deep-tissue dwellers.

Elephantiasis leads to marked swelling of the lower half of the body.

Although often the terms "erythroplasia" and "erythroplakia" are used synonymously, some sources distinguish them, stating that the latter is maccular (flat) while the former is papular (bumpy).

Erythroplakia of the genital mucosae is often referred to as erythroplasia of Queyrat.

The most common areas in the mouth where erythroplakia is found are the floor of the mouth, buccal vestibule, the tongue, and the soft palate. It appears as a red macule or plaque with well-demarcated borders. The texture is characterized as soft and velvety. An adjacent area of leukoplakia may be found along with the erythroplakia.

Erythroplasia may also occur on the laryngeal mucosa, or the anal mucosa.

Lymphatic filariasis, also known as elephantiasis, is a human disease caused by parasitic worms known as filarial worms. Most cases of the disease have no symptoms. Some people, however, develop a syndrome called elephantiasis, which is marked by severe swelling in the arms, legs, breasts, or genitals. The skin may become thicker as well, and the condition may become painful. The changes to the body may harm the affected person's social and economic situation.

The worms are spread by the bites of infected mosquitoes. Three types of worms are known to cause the disease: "Wuchereria bancrofti", "Brugia malayi", and "Brugia timori", with "Wuchereria bancrofti" being the most common. These worms damage the lymphatic system. The disease is diagnosed by microscopic examination of blood collected during the night. The blood is typically examined as a smear after being stained with Giemsa stain. Testing the blood for antibodies against the disease may also permit diagnosis. Other roundworms from the same family are responsible for river blindness.

Prevention can be achieved by treating entire groups in which the disease exists, known as mass deworming. This is done every year for about six years, in an effort to rid a population of the disease entirely. Medications used include antiparasitics such as albendazole with ivermectin, or albendazole with diethylcarbamazine. The medications do not kill the adult worms but prevent further spread of the disease until the worms die on their own. Efforts to prevent mosquito bites are also recommended, including reducing the number of mosquitoes and promoting the use of bed nets.

In 2015 about 38.5 million people were infected. About 950 million people are at risk of the disease in 54 countries. It is most common in tropical Africa and Asia. Lymphatic filariasis is classified as a neglected tropical diseases and one of the four main worm infections. The disease results in economic losses of many billions of dollars a year.

Cigar cells (also referred to as pencil cells) are red blood cells that are cigar or pencil shaped on Peripheral blood smear. Cigar cells are commonly associated with hereditary elliptocytosis. However, they may also be seen in iron deficiency anemia and other pathological states that decrease red blood cell turnover and or production. In the case of iron deficiency anemia, microcytosis and hypochromia would also be expected.