Symptoms are not specific, and diagnosis can be difficult unless the patient presents with clear indications for arterial blood gas sampling. Symptoms may include chest pain, palpitations, headache, altered mental status such as

severe anxiety due to hypoxia, decreased visual acuity, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, altered appetite and weight gain, muscle weakness, bone pain, and joint pain. Those in metabolic acidosis may exhibit deep, rapid breathing called Kussmaul respirations which is classically associated with diabetic ketoacidosis. Rapid deep breaths increase the amount of carbon dioxide exhaled, thus lowering the serum carbon dioxide levels, resulting in some degree of compensation. Overcompensation via respiratory alkalosis to form an alkalemia does not occur.

Extreme acidemia leads to neurological and cardiac complications:

- Neurological: lethargy, stupor, coma, seizures

- Cardiac: arrhythmias (ventricular tachycardia) and decreased response to epinephrine, both leading to hypotension

Physical examination occasionally reveals signs of disease, but is otherwise normal. Cranial nerve abnormalities are reported in ethylene glycol poisoning, and retinal edema can be a sign of methanol intoxication. Longstanding chronic metabolic acidosis leads to osteoporosis and can cause fractures.

Lactic acidosis is commonly found in people who are unwell, such as those with severe heart and/or lung disease, a severe infection with sepsis, the systemic inflammatory response syndrome due to another cause, severe physical trauma, or severe depletion of body fluids. Symptoms in humans include all those of typical metabolic acidosis (nausea, vomiting, generalized muscle weakness, and rapid breathing).

Metabolic acidosis is a condition that occurs when the body produces excessive quantities of acid or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body. If unchecked, metabolic acidosis leads to acidemia, i.e., blood pH is low (less than 7.35) due to increased production of hydrogen ions by the body or the inability of the body to form bicarbonate (HCO) in the kidney. Its causes are diverse, and its consequences can be serious, including coma and death. Together with respiratory acidosis, it is one of the two general causes of acidemia.

Terminology :

- Acidosis refers to a process that causes a low pH in blood and tissues.

- Acidemia refers specifically to a low pH in the blood.

In most cases, acidosis occurs first for reasons explained below. Free hydrogen ions then diffuse into the blood, lowering the pH. Arterial blood gas analysis detects acidemia (pH lower than 7.35). When acidemia is present, acidosis is presumed.

Acid-base disturbances such as lactic acidosis are typically first assessed using arterial blood gas tests. Testing of venous blood is also available as an alternative. Normal results are as follows:

Nervous system involvement may be seen with acidosis and occurs more often with respiratory acidosis than with metabolic acidosis. Signs and symptoms that may be seen in acidosis include headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, flapping tremor, and dysfunction of the cerebrum of the brain which may progress to coma if there is no intervention.

Acidosis is a process causing increased acidity in the blood and other body tissues (i.e., an increased hydrogen ion concentration). If not further qualified, it usually refers to acidity of the blood plasma.

The term acidemia describes the state of low blood pH, while "acidosis" is used to describe the processes leading to these states. Nevertheless, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The distinction may be relevant where a patient has factors causing both acidosis and alkalosis, wherein the relative severity of both determines whether the result is a high, low, or normal pH.

Acidosis is said to occur when arterial pH falls below 7.35 (except in the fetus – see below), while its counterpart (alkalosis) occurs at a pH over 7.45. Arterial blood gas analysis and other tests are required to separate the main causes.

The rate of cellular metabolic activity affects and, at the same time, is affected by the pH of the body fluids. In mammals, the normal pH of arterial blood lies between 7.35 and 7.50 depending on the species (e.g., healthy human-arterial blood pH varies between 7.35 and 7.45). Blood pH values compatible with life in mammals are limited to a pH range between 6.8 and 7.8. Changes in the pH of arterial blood (and therefore the extracellular fluid) outside this range result in irreversible cell damage.

When acidosis is present on blood tests, the first step in determining the cause is determining the anion gap. If the anion gap is high (>12 mEq/L), there are several potential causes.

High anion gap metabolic acidosis is a form of metabolic acidosis characterized by a high anion gap (a medical value based on the concentrations of ions in a patient's serum). An anion gap is usually considered to be high if it is over 12 mEq/L.

High anion gap metabolic acidosis is caused generally by acid produced by the body. More rarely, high anion gap metabolic acidosis may be caused by ingesting methanol or overdosing on aspirin. The Delta Ratio is a formula that can be used to assess elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis and to evaluate whether mixed acid base disorder (metabolic acidosis) is present.

The list of agents that cause high anion gap metabolic acidosis is similar to but broader than the list of agents that cause a serum osmolal gap.

Causes include:

The newest mnemonic was proposed in "The Lancet" reflecting current causes of anion gap metabolic acidosis:

- G — glycols (ethylene glycol & propylene glycol)

- O — oxoproline, a metabolite of paracetamol

- L — L-lactate, the chemical responsible for lactic acidosis

- D — D-lactate

- M — methanol

- A — aspirin

- R — renal failure

- K — ketoacidosis, ketones generated from starvation, alcohol, and diabetic ketoacidosis

The mnemonic MUDPILES is commonly used to remember the causes of increased anion gap metabolic acidosis.

- M — Methanol

- U — Uremia (chronic kidney failure)

- D — Diabetic ketoacidosis

- P — Paracetamol, Propylene glycol (used as an inactive stabilizer in many medications; historically, the "P" also stood for Paraldehyde, though this substance is not commonly used today)

- I — Infection, Iron, Isoniazid (which can cause lactic acidosis in overdose), Inborn errors of metabolism (an especially important consideration in pediatric patients)

- L — Lactic acidosis

- E — Ethylene glycol (Note: Ethanol is sometimes included in this mnemonic as well, although the acidosis caused by ethanol is actually primarily due to the increased production of lactic acid found in such intoxication.)

- S — Salicylates

Another frequently used mnemonic is KARMEL.

- K — Ketoacidosis

- A — aspirin

- R — Renal failure

- M — Methanol

- E — Ethylene glycol

- L — Lactic acidosis

Another frequently used mnemonic is KULT.

- K — Ketoacidosis (DKA, AKA)

- U — Uremia

- L — Lactic acidosis

- T — Toxins (Ethylene glycol, methanol, as well as drugs, such as aspirin, Metformin)

The preferred mnemonic of D. Robert Dufour, the chief of the Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, is DUMPSALE, which omits the I of MUDPILES as the proposed values of *I* are exceedingly rare in clinical practice.

- D — Diabetic ketoacidosis

- U — Uremia

- M — Methanol

- P — Paraldehyde

- S — Salicylates

- A — Alcoholic ketoacidosis

- L — Lactic acidosis

- E — Ethylene Glycol

The mnemonic for the [rare, in comparison] toxins is ACE GIFTs: Aspirin, Cyanide, Ethanolic ketosis, Glycols [ ethylene and propylene ], Isoniazid, Ferrous iron, Toluene. Most of these cause a lactic acidosis.

In general, the cause of a hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis is a "loss of base", either a gastrointestinal loss or a renal loss.

- Gastrointestinal loss of bicarbonate ()

- Severe diarrhea (vomiting will tend to cause hypochloraemic alkalosis)

- Pancreatic fistula with loss of bicarbonate rich pancreatic fluid

- Nasojejunal tube losses in the context of small bowel obstruction and loss of alkaline proximal small bowel secretions

- Chronic laxative abuse

- Renal causes

- Proximal renal tubular acidosis with failure of resorption

- Distal renal tubular acidosis with failure of secretion

- Long-term use of a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor such as acetazolamide

- Other causes

- Ingestion of ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid, or other acidifying salts

- The treatment and recovery phases of diabetic ketoacidosis

- Volume resuscitation with 0.9% normal saline provides a chloride load, so that infusing more than 3-4L can cause acidosis

- Hyperalimentation ("i.e.", total parenteral nutrition)

Hyperchloremic acidosis is a form of metabolic acidosis associated with a normal anion gap, a decrease in plasma bicarbonate concentration, and an increase in plasma chloride concentration (see anion gap for a fuller explanation). Although plasma anion gap is normal, this condition is often associated with an "increased" urine anion gap, due to the kidney's inability to secrete ammonia.

Metabolic alkalosis is usually accompanied by low blood potassium concentration, causing, e.g., muscular weakness, muscle pain, and muscle cramps (from disturbed function of the skeletal muscles), and muscle spasms (from disturbed function of smooth muscles).

It may also cause low blood calcium concentration. As the blood pH increases, blood transport proteins, such as albumin, become more ionized into anions. This causes the free calcium present in blood to bind more strongly with albumin. If severe, it may cause tetany.

Hypoglycemia is the central clinical problem, the one that is most damaging, and the one that most often prompts the initial diagnosis.

Maternal glucose transferred across the placenta prevents hypoglycemia in a fetus with GSD I, but the liver is enlarged with glycogen at birth. The inability to generate and release glucose soon results in hypoglycemia, and occasionally in lactic acidosis fulminant enough to appear as a primary respiratory problem in the newborn period. Neurological manifestations are less severe than if the hypoglycemia were more acute. The brain's habituation to mild hypoglycemia is at least partly explained by use of alternative fuels, primarily lactate.

More commonly, infants with GSD I tolerate without obvious symptoms a chronic, mild hypoglycemia, and compensated lactic acidosis between feedings. Blood glucose levels are typically 25 to 50 mg/dl (1.4–2.8 mM). These infants continue to need oral carbohydrates every few hours. Many never sleep through the night even in the second year of life. They may be pale, clammy, and irritable a few hours after a meal. Developmental delay is not an intrinsic or inevitable effect of glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency but is common if the diagnosis is not made in early infancy.

Although mild hypoglycemia for much of the day may go unsuspected, the metabolic adaptations described above make severe hypoglycemic episodes, with unconsciousness or seizure, uncommon before treatment. Episodes which occur are likely to happen in the morning before breakfast. GSD I is therefore a potential cause of ketotic hypoglycemia in young children.

Once the diagnosis has been made, the principal goal of treatment is to maintain an adequate glucose level and prevent hypoglycemia.

The main causes of hypokalemic acidosis are systemic disorders that can be divided into:

- Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as acetazolamide

- Dialysis, in the post-treatment

- Diarrhea

- Renal tubular acidosis

- Treated DKA with insulin therapy

- VIPoma

Alkalosis is the result of a process reducing hydrogen ion concentration of arterial blood plasma (alkalemia). In contrast to acidemia (serum pH 7.35 or lower), alkalemia occurs when the serum pH is higher than normal (7.45 or higher). Alkalosis is usually divided into the categories of respiratory alkalosis and metabolic alkalosis or a combined respiratory/metabolic alkalosis.

The symptoms of an elevated potassium level are nonspecific, and generally include malaise, palpitations, and muscle weakness. Hyperventilation may indicate a compensatory response to metabolic acidosis, which is one of the possible causes of hyperkalemia. Often, however, the problem is detected during screening blood tests for a medical disorder, or after hospitalization for complications such as cardiac arrhythmia or sudden cardiac death. High levels of potassium (> 5.5 mmol/L) have been associated with cardiovascular events.

Physicians taking a medical history may focus on kidney disease, medication use (e.g. potassium-sparing diuretics), which are common causes.

Impairment of glycogenolysis also causes the characteristic enlargement of the liver (hepatomegaly) due to accumulation of glycogen. Glycogen also accumulates in kidneys and small intestine. Hepatomegaly, usually without enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly), begins to develop in fetal life and is usually noticeable in the first few months of life. By the time the child is standing and walking, the hepatomegaly may be severe enough to cause the abdomen to protrude. The liver edge is often at or below the level of the umbilicus. Other liver functions are usually spared, and liver enzymes and bilirubin are usually normal.

Glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency increases the risk of hepatic adenoma. There is some evidence that metabolic control of the disease is a factor.

Proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA) or Type 2 Renal tubular acidosis (RTA) is a type of RTA caused by a failure of the proximal tubular cells to reabsorb filtered bicarbonate from the urine, leading to urinary bicarbonate wasting and subsequent acidemia. The distal intercalated cells function normally, so the acidemia is less severe than dRTA and the urine can acidify to a pH of less than 5.3. pRTA also has several causes, and may occasionally be present as a solitary defect, but is usually associated with a more generalised dysfunction of the proximal tubular cells called Fanconi syndrome where there is also phosphaturia, glycosuria, aminoaciduria, uricosuria and tubular proteinuria.

Patients with type 2 RTA are also typically hypokalemic due to a combination of secondary hyperaldosteronism, and potassium urinary losses - though serum potassium levels may be falsely elevated because of acidosis. Administration of bicarbonate prior to potassium supplementation might lead to worsened hypokalemia, as potassium shifts intracellularly with alkanization.

The principal feature of Fanconi syndrome is bone demineralization (osteomalacia or rickets) due to phosphate and vitamin D wasting.

Because renal excretion is the primary means of eliminating acid from the body, there is consequently a tendency towards acidemia.

This leads to the clinical features of dRTA:

- Normal anion gap metabolic acidosis/acidemia

- Hypokalemia

- Urinary stone formation (related to alkaline urine, hypercalciuria, and low urinary citrate).

- Nephrocalcinosis (deposition of calcium in the substance of the kidney)

- Bone demineralisation (causing rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults)

The symptoms and sequelae of dRTA are variable and range from being completely asymptomatic, to loin pain and hematuria from kidney stones, to failure to thrive and severe rickets in childhood forms as well as possible renal failure and even death.

dRTA commonly leads to sodium loss and volume contraction, which causes a compensatory increase in blood levels of aldosterone. Aldosterone causes increased resorption of sodium and loss of potassium in the collecting duct of the kidney, so these increased aldosterone levels cause the hypokalemia which is a common symptom of dRTA.

Distal RTA (dRTA) is the classical form of RTA, being the first described. Distal RTA is characterized by a failure of H+ secretion into lumen of nephron by the alpha intercalated cells of the medullary collecting duct of the distal nephron.

This failure of acid secretion may be due to a number of causes, and it leads to an inability to acidify the urine to a pH of less than 5.3. Because renal excretion is the primary means of eliminating from the body, there is consequently a tendency towards acidemia. There is an inability to excrete H while cannot be reclaimed by the cell, leading to acidemia (as builds up in the body) and hypokalemia (as cannot be reabsorbed by the alpha cell).

This leads to the clinical features of dRTA; In other words, the intercalated cells' apical H+/K+ antiporter is non-functional, resulting in proton retention and potassium excretion. Since calcium phosphate stones demonstrate a proclivity for deposition at higher pHs (alkaline), the substance of the kidney develops stones bilaterally; this does not occur in the other RTA types.

- Normal anion gap metabolic acidosis/acidemia

- Hypokalemia, Hypocalcemia, Hyperchloremia

- Urinary stone formation (related to alkaline urine, hypercalciuria, and low urinary citrate).

- Nephrocalcinosis (deposition of calcium in the substance of the kidney)

- Bone demineralisation (causing rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults)

- Sjogren's syndrome

An overview of types 1, 2, and 4 is presented below (type 3 is usually excluded from modern classifications):

Hyperkalemia, also spelled hyperkalaemia, is an elevated level of potassium (K) in the blood serum. Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0 mmol/L (3.5 and 5.0 mEq/L) with levels above 5.5 mmol/L defined as hyperkalemia. Typically this results in no symptoms. Occasionally when severe it results in palpitations, muscle pain, muscle weakness, or numbness. An abnormal heart rate can occur which can result in cardiac arrest and death.

Common causes include kidney failure, hypoaldosteronism, and rhabdomyolysis. A number of medications can also cause high blood potassium including spironolactone, NSAIDs, and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. The severity is divided into mild (5.5-5.9 mmol/L), moderate (6.0-6.4 mmol/L), and severe (>6.5 mmol/L). High levels can also be detected on an electrocardiogram (ECG). Pseudohyperkalemia, due to breakdown of cells during or after taking the blood sample, should be ruled out.

Initial treatment in those with ECG changes is calcium gluconate. Medications that might worsen the condition should be stopped and a low potassium diet should be recommended. Other medications used include dextrose with insulin, salbutamol, and sodium bicarbonate. Measures to remove potassium from the body include furosemide, polystyrene sulfonate, and hemodialysis. Hemodialysis is the most effective method. The use of polystyrene sulfonate, while common, is poorly supported by evidence.

Hyperkalemia is rare among those who are otherwise healthy. Among those who are in hospital, rates are between 1% and 2.5%. It increases the overall risk of death by at least ten times. The word "hyperkalemia" is from "hyper-" meaning high; "kalium" meaning potassium; and "-emia", meaning "in the blood".

The differential diagnosis of normal anion gap acidosis is relatively short (when compared to the differential diagnosis of "acidosis"):

- Hyperalimentation

- Acetazolamide and other carbonic anhydrase inhibitors

- Renal tubular acidosis

- Diarrhea: due to a loss of bicarbonate. This is compensated by an increase in chloride concentration, thus leading to a normal anion gap, or hyperchloremic, metabolic acidosis. The pathophysiology of increased chloride concentration is the following: fluid secreted into the gut lumen contains higher amounts of Na than Cl; large losses of these fluids, particularly if volume is replaced with fluids containing equal amounts of Na and Cl, results in a decrease in the plasma Na concentration relative to the Clconcentration. This scenario can be avoided if formulations such as lactated Ringer’s solution are used instead of normal saline to replace GI losses.

- Ureteroenteric fistula - an abnormal connection (fistula) between a ureter and the gastrointestinal tract

- Pancreaticoduodenal fistula - an abnormal connection between the pancreas and duodenum

- Spironolactone

As opposed to high anion gap acidosis (which involves increased organic acid production), normal anion gap acidosis involves either increased production of chloride (hyperchloremic acidosis) or increased excretion of bicarbonate.

Hypokalemic acidosis is a normal anion gap metabolic acidosis that has various direct and associated symptoms. Symptoms are associated with hypokalemia instead of hyperkalemia.

Familial disorders

- Cystinosis

- Galactosemia

- Glycogen storage disease (type I)

- Hereditary fructose intolerance

- Lowe syndrome

- Tyrosinemia

- Wilson's disease

Acquired disorders

- Amyloidosis

- Multiple myeloma

- Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria

- Toxins, such as HAART, ifosfamide, lead, and cadmium

Distal renal tubular acidosis (dRTA) or Type 1 renal tubular acidosis (RTA) is the classical form of RTA, being the first described. Distal RTA is characterized by a failure of acid secretion by the alpha intercalated cells of the cortical collecting duct of the distal nephron. This failure of acid secretion may be due to a number of causes, and it leads to an inability to acidify the urine to a pH of less than 5.3.