On gross pathological examination, they are solid, sharply circumscribed and pale yellow-tan in colour. 90% are unilateral (arising in one ovary, the other is unaffected). The tumours can vary in size from less than to . Borderline and malignant Brenner tumours are possible but each are rare.

Brenner tumors are an uncommon subtype of the surface epithelial-stromal tumor group of ovarian neoplasms. The majority are benign, but some can be malignant.

They are most frequently found incidentally on pelvic examination or at laparotomy. Brenner tumours very rarely can occur in other locations, including the testes.

They are exceptionally associated with hypercalcemia. On gross examination, dysgerminomas present with a smooth, bosselated (knobby) external surface, and is soft, fleshy and either cream-coloured, gray, pink or tan when cut. Microscopic examination typically reveals uniform cells that resemble primordial germ cells. Typically, the stroma contains lymphocytes and about 20% of patients have sarcoid-like granulomas.

Metastases are most often present in the lymph nodes.

Estrogens are produced by "functioning" tumours, and the clinical presentation depends on the patient's age and sex.

- Female

- If the patient is postmenopausal, she usually presents with abnormal uterine bleeding, and in some cases hemoperitoneum.

- If the patient is of reproductive age, she would present with menometrorrhagia. However, in some cases she may stop ovulating altogether.

- If the patient has not undergone puberty, early onset of puberty may be seen.

- these tumors tend to have late recurrencies ( even after 30 years )

A dysgerminoma is a type of germ cell tumor; it usually is malignant and usually occurs in the ovary.

A tumor of the identical histology but not occurring in the ovary may be described by an alternate name: seminoma in the testis or germinoma in the central nervous system or other parts of the body.

Dysgerminoma accounts for less than 1% of ovarian tumors overall. Dysgerminoma usually occurs in adolescence and early adult life; about 5% occur in pre-pubertal children. Dysgerminoma is extremely rare after age 50. Dysgerminoma occurs in both ovaries in 10% of patients and, in a further 10%, there is microscopic tumor in the other ovary.

Abnormal gonads (due to gonadal dysgenesis and androgen insensitivity syndrome) have a high risk of developing a dysgerminoma. Most dysgerminomas are associated with elevated serum lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), which is sometimes used as a tumor marker.

GCNIS is seen in the following settings:

- Almost all invasive germ cell tumours of the testis in adults

- Fifty percent of patients with GCNIS developed invasive germ cell tumours within five years of initial diagnosis.

- Five percent of contralateral testes in men with a history of prior testicular germ cell tumour.

- Less than five percent of cryptorchid testes.

- Less than one percent of patients with infertility.

TCC of the ovary is diagnosed by examination of the tissue by a pathologist. It has a characteristic appearance under the microscope and distinctive pattern of immunostaining.

Granulosa cell tumours (or granulosa-theca cell tumours or folliculoma) are tumours that arise from granulosa cells. These tumours are part of the sex cord-gonadal stromal tumour or non-epithelial group of tumours. Although granulosa cells normally occur only in the ovary, granulosa cell tumours occur in both ovaries and testicles (see Ovarian cancer and Testicular cancer). These tumours should be considered malignant and treated in the same way as other malignant tumours of ovary. The ovarian disease has two forms, juvenile and adult, both characterized by indolent growth, and therefore has high recovery rates.

The staging system for these tumours is the same as for epithelial tumours and most present as stage I. The peak age at which they occur is 50–55 years, but they may occur at any age.

Juvenile granulosa cell tumour is a similar but distinct rare tumour. It too occurs in both the ovary and testis. In the testis it is extremely rare, and has not been reported to be malignant. Although this tumour usually occurs in children (hence its name), it has been reported in adults.

Not all germ cell tumors (GCTs) arise from "intratubular germ cell neoplasia". The following testicular GCTs do not arise from ITGCN:

- Spermatocytic seminoma

- Pediatric Yolk sac tumors (endodermal sinus tumour). This is currently an area of controversy as some authors dispute the absence of ITGCN in these cases.

- Teratoma (rare exceptions)

Transitional cell carcinoma of the ovary, abbreviated TCC of the ovary, is a rare type of ovarian cancer that has an appearance similar to urothelial carcinoma (also known as transitional cell carcinoma).

A gonadal tissue neoplasm is a tumor having any histology characteristic of cells or tissues giving rise to the gonads. These tissues arise from the sex cord and stromal cells. The tumor may be derived from these tissues, or produce them.

Although the tumor is composed of gonadal tissue, it is not necessarily located in an ovary or testicle.

A gonadal tissue neoplasm should not be confused with a urogenital neoplasm, though the two topics are often studied together. The embryology of the gonads is only indirectly related to the embryology of the external genitals and urinary system.

Most patients present clinically with progressive, one sided hearing loss, much more often of the sensorineural rather than conductive type. Patients may also experience tinnitus, vertigo, and loss of vestibular function (ataxia). Symptoms are usually present for a long time, which supports the slow growth of these tumors. Patients may also present with other symptoms related to von Hippel-Lindau syndrome in other anatomic sites, which will result in imaging evaluation of the head.

The average age of diagnosis is between 15 and 35 years. This is about 5 to 10 years older than men with other germ cell tumors of the testes. In most cases, they produce masses that are readily felt on testicular self-examination; however, in up to 11 percent of cases, there may be no mass able to be felt, or there may be testicular atrophy. Testicular pain is reported in up to one fifth of cases. Low back pain may occur after metastasis to the retroperitoneum.

Some cases of seminoma can present as a primary tumour outside the testis, most commonly in the mediastinum. In the ovary, the tumor is called a dysgerminoma, and in non-gonadal sites, particularly the central nervous system, it is called a germinoma.

Benign tumors of the ovary include ovarian cysts, such as borderline tumor cysts.

Epithelial-stromal tumors are classified on the basis of the epithelial cell type, the relative amounts of epithelium and stroma, the presence of processes, and the location of the epithelial elements. Microscopic pathological features determine whether a surface epithelial-stromal tumor is benign, borderline, or malignant (evidence of malignancy and stromal invasion). Borderline tumors are of uncertain malignant potential.

This group consists of serous, mucinous, endometrioid, clear cell, and brenner (transitional cell) tumors, though there are a few mixed, undifferentiated and unclassified types.

Endodermal sinus tumor (EST), also known as yolk sac tumor (YST), is a member of the germ cell tumor group of cancers. It is the most common testicular tumor in children under 3, and is also known as infantile embryonal carcinoma. This age group has a very good prognosis. In contrast to the pure form typical of infants, adult endodermal sinus tumors are often found in combination with other kinds of germ cell tumor, particularly teratoma and embryonal carcinoma. While pure teratoma is usually benign, endodermal sinus tumor is malignant.

Despite their name, germ cell tumors occur both within and outside the ovary and testis.

- head

- inside the cranium — pineal and suprasellar locations are most commonly reported

- inside the mouth — a fairly common location for teratoma

- neck

- mediastinum — account for 1% to 5% of all germ cell neoplasms

- pelvis, particularly sacrococcygeal teratoma

- ovary

- testis

In females, germ cell tumors account for 30% of ovarian tumors, but only 1 to 3% of ovarian cancers in North America. In younger women germ cell tumors are more common, thus in patients under the age of 21, 60% of ovarian tumors are of the germ cell type, and up to one-third are malignant. In males, germ cell tumors of the testis occur typically after puberty and are malignant (testicular cancer). In neonates, infants, and children younger than 4 years, the majority of germ cell tumors are sacrococcygeal teratomas.

Males with Klinefelter syndrome have a 50 times greater risk of germ cell tumors (GSTs). In these persons, GSTs usually contain nonseminomatous elements, present at an earlier age, and seldom are gonadal in location.

The histology of EST is variable, but usually includes malignant endodermal cells. These cells secrete alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), which can be detected in tumor tissue, serum, cerebrospinal fluid, urine and, in the rare case of fetal EST, in amniotic fluid. When there is incongruence between biopsy and AFP test results for EST, the result indicating presence of EST dictates treatment. This is because EST often occurs as small "malignant foci" within a larger tumor, usually teratoma, and biopsy is a sampling method; biopsy of the tumor may reveal only teratoma, whereas elevated AFP reveals that EST is also present. GATA-4, a transcription factor, also may be useful in the diagnosis of EST.

Diagnosis of EST in pregnant women and in infants is complicated by the extremely high levels of AFP in those two groups. Tumor surveillance by monitoring AFP requires accurate correction for gestational age in pregnant women, and age in infants. In pregnant women, this can be achieved simply by testing maternal serum AFP rather than tumor marker AFP. In infants, the tumor marker test is used, but must be interpreted using a reference table or graph of normal AFP in infants.

A germ cell tumor (GCT) is a neoplasm derived from germ cells. Germ cell tumors can be cancerous or non-cancerous tumors. Germ cells normally occur inside the gonads (ovary and testis). Germ cell tumors that originate outside the gonads may be birth defects resulting from errors during development of the embryo.

Surface epithelial-stromal tumors are a class of ovarian neoplasms that may be benign or malignant. Neoplasms in this group are thought to be derived from the ovarian surface epithelium (modified peritoneum) or from endometrial or Fallopian tube (tubal) tissue. Tumors of this type are also called ovarian adenocarcinoma. This group of tumors accounts for 90% to 95% of all cases of ovarian cancer. Serum CA-125 is often elevated but is only 50% accurate so it is not a useful tumor marker to assess the progress of treatment.

Ovarian cancer is classified according to the histology of the tumor, obtained in a pathology report. Histology dictates many aspects of clinical treatment, management, and prognosis.

- Surface epithelial-stromal tumours, also known as ovarian epithelial tumors, are the most common type of ovarian cancer. It includes serous tumour, endometrioid tumor, and mucinous tumour. They can be benign (cystadenoma) or malignant (cystadenocarcinoma). Less common tumors are malignant Brenner tumor and transitional cell carcinoma of the ovary.

- Sex cord-stromal tumor, including estrogen-producing granulosa cell tumor and virilizing Sertoli-Leydig cell tumor or arrhenoblastoma, accounts for 8% of ovarian cancers.

- Germ cell tumor accounts for approximately 30% of ovarian tumors but only 5% of ovarian cancers, because most germ cell tumors are teratomas and most teratomas are benign. Germ cell tumors tend to occur in young women (20's-30's) and girls. Whilst overall the prognosis of germ cell tumors tend to be favourable, it can vary substantially with specific histology: for instance, the prognosis of the most common germ cell tumor (dysgerminomas) tends to be good, whilst the second most common (endodermal sinus tumor) tends to have a poor prognosis. In addition, the cancer markers used vary with tumor type: choriocarcinomas are monitored with beta-HCG; dysgerminomas with LDH; and endodermal sinus tumors with alpha-fetoprotein.

- Mixed tumors, containing elements of more than one of the above classes of tumor histology.

Teratomas maybe found in babies, children, and adults. Teratomas of embryonal origin are most often found in babies at birth, in young children, and, since the advent of ultrasound imaging, in fetuses.

The most commonly diagnosed fetal teratomas are sacrococcygeal teratoma (Altman types I, II, and III) and cervical (neck) teratoma. Because these teratomas project from the fetal body into the surrounding amniotic fluid, they can be seen during routine prenatal ultrasound exams. Teratomas within the fetal body are less easily seen with ultrasound; for these, MRI of the pregnant uterus is more informative.

Seminoma (also known as "pure seminoma" or "classical seminoma") is a germ cell tumor of the testicle or, more rarely, the mediastinum or other extra-gonadal locations. It is a malignant neoplasm and is one of the most treatable and curable cancers, with a survival rate above 95% if discovered in early stages.

Testicular seminoma originates in the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules. About half of germ cell tumors of the testicles are seminomas. Treatment usually requires removal of one testicle. However, fertility usually isn't affected. All other sexual functions will remain intact.

A teratoma is a tumor made up of several different types of tissue, such as hair, muscle, or bone. They typically form in the ovaries, testicles, or tailbone and less commonly in other areas. Symptoms may be minimal if the tumor is small. A testicular teratoma may present as a painless lump. Complications may include ovarian torsion, testicular torsion, or hydrops fetalis.

They are a type of germ cell tumor (a tumor that begins in the cells that give rise to sperm or eggs). They are divided into two types mature and immature. Mature teratomas include dermoid cysts and are generally benign. Immature teratomas may be cancerous. Most ovarian teratomas are mature. In adults, testicular teratomas are generally cancerous. Definitive diagnosis is based on a tissue biopsy.

Treatment of tailbone, testicular, and ovarian teratomas is generally by surgery. Testicular and immature ovarian teratomas are also frequently treated with chemotherapy.

Teratomas occur in the tailbone in about 1 in 30,000 newborns making them the most common tumor in this age group. Females are affected more often than males. Ovarian teratomas represent about a quarter of ovarian tumors and are typically noticed during middle age. Testicular teratomas represent almost half of testicular cancers. They can occur in both children and adults. The term comes from the Greek words for "monster" and "tumor".

Solid pseudopapillary tumours are typically round, well-demarcated, measuring 2–17 cm in diameter (average 8 cm), with solid and cystic areas with hemorrhage on cut sections.