Gliomas can be classified according to whether they are above or below a membrane in the brain called the tentorium. The tentorium separates the cerebrum (above) from the cerebellum (below).

- The supratentorial is above the tentorium, in the cerebrum, and mostly found in adults (70%).

- The infratentorial is below the tentorium, in the cerebellum, and mostly found in children (70%).

- The pontine tumors are located in the pons of the brainstem. The brainstem has three parts (pons, midbrain, and medulla); the pons controls critical functions such as breathing, making surgery on these extremely dangerous.

Initial presenting symptoms most commonly are headache, depressed mental status, focal neurological deficits, and/or seizures. The growth rate and mean interval between onset of symptoms and diagnosis is approximately 1.5–2 years but is highly variable, being intermediate between that of low-grade astrocytomas and glioblastomas. Seizures are less common among patients with anaplastic astrocytomas compared to low-grade lesions.

Symptoms of gliomas depend on which part of the central nervous system is affected. A brain glioma can cause headaches, vomiting, seizures, and cranial nerve disorders as a result of increased intracranial pressure. A glioma of the optic nerve can cause visual loss. Spinal cord gliomas can cause pain, weakness, or numbness in the extremities. Gliomas do not metastasize by the bloodstream, but they can spread via the cerebrospinal fluid and cause "drop metastases" to the spinal cord.

A child who has a subacute disorder of the central nervous system that produces cranial nerve abnormalities (especially of cranial nerve VII and the lower bulbar nerves), long-tract signs, unsteady gait secondary to spasticity, and some behavioral changes is most likely to have a pontine glioma.

In anywhere from fifty to eighty percent of cases, the first symptom of an oligodendroglioma is the onset of seizure activity. They occur mainly in the frontal lobe.

Headaches combined with increased intracranial pressure are also a common symptom of oligodendroglioma. Depending on the location of the tumor, any neurological deficit can be induced, from visual loss, motor weakness and cognitive decline. A computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is necessary to characterize the anatomy of this tumor (size, location, heter/homogeneity). However, final diagnosis of this tumor, like most tumors, relies on histopathologic examination (biopsy examination).

Oligodendrogliomas are a type of glioma that are believed to originate from the oligodendrocytes of the brain or from a glial precursor cell. They occur primarily in adults (9.4% of all primary brain and central nervous system tumors) but are also found in children (4% of all primary brain tumors). The average age at diagnosis is 35 years.

The desire to eat normally becomes worse over time, leading to weight loss from vomiting. Nausea is seen in almost all cases of astroblastoma, especially in low-grade tumors.

Source:

- severe headache

- visual loss (due to papilledema)

- vomiting

- bilateral Babinski sign

- drowsiness (after several hours of the above symptoms)

- gait change (rotation of feet when walking)

- impaction/constipation

- back flexibility

Along with cranial pressure, patients exhibit noticeable lethargy, increasing in severity as the tumor progresses. In the first few months, morning activities are usually unaffected; over time, these effects become more pronounced, especially late at night. Lethargy can disrupt vital signs, depleting energy and desire to perform simple cognitive tasks.

Anaplastic astrocytomas fall under the category of high grade gliomas (WHO grade III-IV), which are pathologically undifferentiated gliomas that carry a poor clinical prognosis. Unlike glioblastomas (WHO grade IV), anaplastic astrocytomas lack vascular proliferation and necrosis on pathologic evaluation. Compared to grade II tumors, anaplastic astrocytomas are more cellular, demonstrate more atypia, and mitoses are seen.

RMS can occur in almost any soft-tissue site in the body; the most common primary sites are genitourinary (24%), parameningeal (16%), extremity (19%), orbit (9%), other head and neck (10%), and miscellaneous other sites (22%). RMS often presents as a mass, but signs and symptoms can vary widely depending on the site of the primary tumor. Genitourinary tumors may present with hematuria, urinary tract obstruction, and/or a scrotal or vaginal mass. Tumors that arise in the retroperitoneum and mediastinum can become quite large before producing signs and symptoms. Parameningeal tumors may present with cranial nerve dysfunction, symptoms of sinusitis, ear discharge, headaches, and facial pain. Orbital tumors often present with orbital swelling and proptosis. Extremity tumors generally present as a rapidly enlarging, firm mass in the relevant tissue. The cancer's prevalence in the head, face, and neck will often allow for earlier signs of the disease simply due to the obvious nature of tumors in these locations. Despite the varying presentation and typically aggressive nature of the disease, RMS has the potential to be diagnosed and treated early. The fourth IRSG study found that 23% of patients were diagnosed in time for a complete resection of their cancer, and 15% had resection with only minimal remnants of the diseased cells.

The first symptoms of neuroblastoma are often vague making diagnosis difficult. Fatigue, loss of appetite, fever, and joint pain are common. Symptoms depend on primary tumor locations and metastases if present:

- In the abdomen, a tumor may cause a swollen belly and constipation.

- A tumor in the chest may cause breathing problems.

- A tumor pressing on the spinal cord may cause weakness and thus an inability to stand, crawl, or walk.

- Bone lesions in the legs and hips may cause pain and limping.

- A tumor in the bones around the eyes or orbits may cause distinct bruising and swelling.

- Infiltration of the bone marrow may cause pallor from anemia.

Neuroblastoma often spreads to other parts of the body before any symptoms are apparent and 50 to 60% of all neuroblastoma cases present with metastases.

The most common location for neuroblastoma to originate (i.e., the primary tumor) is in the adrenal glands. This occurs in 40% of localized tumors and in 60% of cases of widespread disease. Neuroblastoma can also develop anywhere along the sympathetic nervous system chain from the neck to the pelvis. Frequencies in different locations include: neck (1%), chest (19%), abdomen (30% non-adrenal), or pelvis (1%). In rare cases, no primary tumor can be discerned.

Rare but characteristic presentations include transverse myelopathy (tumor spinal cord compression, 5% of cases), treatment-resistant diarrhea (tumor vasoactive intestinal peptide secretion, 4% of cases), Horner's syndrome (cervical tumor, 2.4% of cases), opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome and ataxia (suspected paraneoplastic cause, 1.3% of cases), and hypertension (catecholamine secretion or renal artery compression, 1.3% of cases).

There are many possible symptoms of oligodendrogliomas that are similar to other gliomas. These symptoms may include headache, seizure and speech or motor changes.

Gangliogliomas are generally benign WHO grade I tumors; the presence of anaplastic changes in the glial component is considered to represent WHO grade III (anaplastic ganglioglioma). Criteria for WHO grade II have been suggested, but are not established. Malignant transformation of spinal ganglioglioma has been seen in only a select few cases. Poor prognostic factors for adults with gangliogliomas include older age at diagnosis, male sex, and malignant histologic features.

Astrocytomas are a type of cancer of the brain. They originate in a particular kind of glial cells, star-shaped brain cells in the cerebrum called astrocytes. This type of tumor does not usually spread outside the brain and spinal cord and it does not usually affect other organs. Astrocytomas are the most common glioma and can occur in most parts of the brain and occasionally in the spinal cord. Within the astrocytomas, there are two broad classes recognized in literature, those with:

- Narrow zones of infiltration (mostly noninvasive tumors; e.g., pilocytic astrocytoma, subependymal giant cell astrocytoma, pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma), that often are clearly outlined on diagnostic images

- Diffuse zones of infiltration (e.g., high-grade astrocytoma, anaplastic astrocytoma, glioblastoma), that share various features, including the ability to arise at any location in the CNS (Central Nervous System), but with a preference for the cerebral hemispheres; they occur usually in adults; and an intrinsic tendency to progress to more advanced grades.

People can develop astrocytomas at any age. The low-grade type is more often found in children or young adults, while the high-grade type are more prevalent in adults. Astrocytomas in the base of the brain are more common in young people and account for roughly 75% of neuroepithelial tumors.

Pediatric ependymomas are similar in nature to the adult form of ependymoma in that they are thought to arise from radial glial cells lining the ventricular system. However, they differ from adult ependymomas in which genes and chromosomes are most often affected, the region of the brain they are most frequently found in, and the prognosis of the patients. Children with certain hereditary diseases, such as neurofibromatosis type II (NF2), have been found to be more frequently afflicted with this class of tumors, but a firm genetic link remains to be established. Symptoms associated with the development of pediatric ependymomas are varied, much like symptoms for a number of other pediatric brain tumors including vomiting, headache, irritability, lethargy, and changes in gait. Although younger children and children with invasive tumor types generally experience less favorable outcomes, total removal of the tumors is the most conspicuous prognostic factor for both survival and relapse.

Ganglioglioma is a rare, slow-growing primary central nervous system (CNS) tumor which most frequently occurs in the temporal lobes of children and young adults.

Oligoastrocytomas are a subset of brain tumors that present with an appearance of mixed glial cell origin, astrocytoma and oligodendroglioma. These types of glial cells that become cancerous are involved with insulating and regulating the activity of neuron cells in the central nervous system. Often called a "mixed glioma", about 2.3% of all reported brain tumors are diagnosed as oligoastrocytoma. The median age of diagnosis is 42.5.

Oligoastrocytomas, like astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas, can be divided into low-grade and anaplastic variant, the latter characterized by high , conspicuous cytologic , mitotic activity and, in some cases, microvascular proliferation and necrosis.

However, lower grades can have less aggressive biology.

These are largely supratentorial tumors of adulthood that favor the frontal and temporal lobes.

Common symptoms include seizure, headaches, nausea and vomiting, memory loss, changes to personality, mood or concentration; and localized neurological problems.

The kind of symptoms produced depends more on the location of the tumor than on its pathological properties. The tumor can start producing symptoms quickly, but occasionally is an asymptomatic condition until it reaches an enormous size.

Ependymoma is a tumor that arises from the ependyma, a tissue of the central nervous system. Usually, in pediatric cases the location is intracranial, while in adults it is spinal. The common location of intracranial ependymoma is the fourth ventricle. Rarely, ependymoma can occur in the pelvic cavity.

Syringomyelia can be caused by an ependymoma.

Ependymomas are also seen with neurofibromatosis type II.

Neuroblastoma (NB) is a type of cancer that forms in certain types of nerve tissue. It most frequently starts from one of the adrenal glands, but can also develop in the neck, chest, abdomen, or spine. Symptoms may include bone pain, a lump in the abdomen, neck, or chest, or a painless bluish lump under the skin.

Occasionally neuroblastoma may be due to a mutation inherited from a person's parents. Environmental factors have not been found to be involved. Diagnosis is based on a tissue biopsy. Occasionally it may be found in a baby by ultrasound during pregnancy. At diagnosis the cancer has usually already spread. The cancer is divided into low, intermediate, and high risk groups based on a child's age, cancer stage, and what the cancer looks like.

Treatment and outcomes depends on the risk group a person is in. Treatments may include observation, surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or stem cell transplantation. Low-risk disease in babies typically has a good outcome with surgery or simply observation. In high-risk disease chances of long term survival, however, are less than 40% despite aggressive treatment.

Neuroblastoma is the most common cancer in babies and the third most common cancer in children after leukemia and brain cancer. About 1 in every 7,000 children is affected at some point in time. About 90% of cases occur in children less than 5 years old and it is rare in adults. Of cancer deaths in children about 15% are due to neuroblastoma. The disease was first described in the 1800s.

Small tumors (e.g., < 2.0 cm) usually are incidental findings at autopsy without having caused symptoms. Larger tumors may cause symptoms, depending on the size and location.

- Focal seizures may be caused by meningiomas that overlie the cerebrum.

- Progressive spastic weakness in legs and incontinence may be caused by tumors that overlie the parasagittal frontoparietal region.

- Tumors of the Sylvian aqueduct may cause myriad motor, sensory, aphasic, and seizure symptoms, depending on the location.

- Increased intracranial pressure eventually occurs, but is less frequent than in gliomas.

- Diplopia (Double vision) or uneven pupil size may be symptoms if related pressure causes a third and/or sixth nerve palsy.

Children with PXA can present with a variety of symptoms. Complaints may vary, and patients may report symptoms that have been occurring for many months and are often linked with more common diseases. (For example, headaches are a common complaint.)

Some children, however, will present with symptoms that start very suddenly, like seizures.

Symptoms present 1–36 months before diagnosis, and can vary depending on age, tumor grade, and location. Increased intracranial pressure can induce vomiting, headache, irritability, lethargy, changes in gait, and in children less than 2, feeding problems, involuntary eye movements, and hydrocephalus are often noticeable. Seizures occur in about 20% of pediatric patients. Loss of cognitive function and even sudden death could occur if the tumor is located at a crucial location for CSF flow. Pediatric ependymomas most often occur in the posterior cranial fossa, in contrast with adult ependymomas which usually occur along the spine. Ependymomas present as low-density masses on CT scans, and are hyperintense on T2-weighted MRI images.

Given the difficulty in diagnosing rhabdomyosarcoma, definitive classification of subsets has proven difficult. As a result, classification systems vary by institute and organization. However, rhabdomyosarcoma can be generally divided into three histological subsets:

- "Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma" (ERMS) is the most common histological variant, comprising approximately 60–70% of childhood cases. It is most common in children 0–4 years old, with a maximum reported incidence of 4 cases per 1 million children. ERMS is characterized by spindle-shaped cells with a stromal-rich appearance, and the morphology is similar to the developing muscle cells of a 6–8 week old embryo. Tumors often present in the head and neck as well as the genitourinary tract. ERMS also has two defined subtypes, botryoid and spindle cell ERMS, and these subtypes are associated with a favorable prognosis.

- Subtypes of ERMS

- Botryoid ERMS is almost always found in mucosal lined organs including the vagina, bladder, and nasopharynx (although presentation in the nasopharynx typically affects older children). It often presents in patients <1 year old as a round, grape-like mass on the affected organ. Histologically, cells of the botryoid variant are defined by a dense tumor layer under an epithelium (cambium layer).

- Spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma comprises about 3% of all RMS cases. This subtype is very similar to that of leiomyosarcoma (cancer of the smooth muscle tissue), and it has a fascicular, spindled, and leiomyomatous growth pattern with notable rhabdomyoblastic differentiation . It occurs most commonly in the paratesticular region, and the prognosis for this particular form of RMS is excellent with a reported 5 year survival rate of 95%.

- "Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma" (ARMS) is the second most common type. ARMS comprises approximately 20–25% of RMS-related tumors, and it is equally distributed among all age groups with an incidence of about 1 case per 1 million people ages 0 to 19. For this reason, it is the most common form of RMS observed in young adults and teenagers, who are less prone to the embryonal variant. This type of RMS is characterized by densely-packed, round cells that arrange around spaces similar in shape to pulmonary alveoli, although variants have been discovered without these characteristic alveolar spacings. ARMS tends to form more often in the extremities, trunk, and peritoneum. It is also typically more aggressive than ERMS.

- "Anaplastic (undifferentiated) rhabdomyosarcoma", also known as "pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma", is the final variant of RMS recognized in most classification systems. Anaplastic rhabdomyosarcoma is defined by the presence of anaplastic cells with large, lobate hyperchromatic nuclei and multipolar mitotic figures. These tumors display high heterogeneity and extremely poor differentiation. The anaplastic cells may be diffuse or localized, with the diffuse variation correlating to a worse prognosis. It occurs most often in adults, rarely in children, and is often discovered in the extremities. Due to the lack of discernible separation among cancers of this type, clinicians will often label undiagnosed sarcomas with little to no discernible features as anaplastic RMS. It is the most aggressive type of RMS, and will often require intensive treatment.

There is also an extremely rare subtype of RMS that has been described as "sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma" by "Folpe, et al", but it is not a currently recognized subtype by the NCI or WHO. This subtype has characteristic histology involving hyaline sclerosis and pseudovascular development. Its origins are unclear, but some studies have pointed to an association with embryonal RMS.

Multiple classification systems have been proposed for guiding management and treatment, and the most recent and widely used classification system is the "International Classification of Rhabdomyosarcoma" or ICR. It was created by the IRSG in 1995 after their series of four multi-institutional trials aimed at studying the presentation, histology, epidemiology, and treatment of RMS (IRSG I–IV). The ICR system is based on prognostic indicators identified in IRSG I–IV. Pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma usually occurs in adults rather than children, and is therefor not included in this system. Sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma is also not included in this system due to its rare presentation and weak classification schema.

Glioblastoma, also known as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is the most aggressive cancer that begins within the brain. Initially, signs and symptoms of glioblastoma are non-specific. They may include headaches, personality changes, nausea, and symptoms similar to those of a stroke. Worsening of symptoms often is rapid. This may progress to unconsciousness.

The cause of most cases is unclear. Uncommon risk factors include genetic disorders such as neurofibromatosis and Li–Fraumeni syndrome, and previous radiation therapy. Glioblastomas represent 15% of brain tumors. They can either start from normal brain cells or develop from an existing low-grade astrocytoma. The diagnosis typically is made by a combination of CT scan, MRI scan, and tissue biopsy.

There is no clear way to prevent the disease. Typically, treatment involves surgery, after which chemotherapy and radiation therapy are used. The medication temozolomide is used frequently as part of chemotherapy. High dose steroids may be used to help reduce swelling and decrease symptoms. It is unclear whether trying to remove all or simply most of the cancer is better.

Despite maximum treatment, the cancer usually recurs. The most common length of survival following diagnosis is 12 to 15 months, with fewer than 3% to 5% of people surviving longer than five years. Without treatment, survival is typically three months. It is the most common cancer that begins within the brain and the second most common brain tumor, after meningioma. About 3 per 100,000 people develop the disease a year. It most often begins around 64 years of age and occurs more commonly in males than females. Immunotherapy is being studied in glioblastoma with promising results.