There are various risk assessment systems for determining the risk of coronary artery disease, with various emphasis on different variables above. A notable example is Framingham Score, used in the Framingham Heart Study. It is mainly based on age, gender, diabetes, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, tobacco smoking and systolic blood pressure.

There are a number of different biomarkers used to determine the presence of cardiac muscle damage. Troponins, measured through a blood test, are considered to be the best, and are preferred because they have greater sensitivity and specificity for measuring injury to the heart muscle than other tests. A rise in troponin occurs within 2–3 hours of injury to the heart muscle, and peaks within 1–2 days. The gross value of the troponin, as well as a change over time, are useful in measuring and diagnosing or excluding myocardial infarctions, and the diagnostic accuracy of troponin testing is improving over time. One high-sensitivity cardiac troponin is able to rule out a heart attack as long as the ECG is normal.

Other tests, such as CK-MB or myoglobin, are discouraged. CK-MB is not as specific as troponins for acute myocardial injury, and may be elevated with past cardiac surgery, inflammation or electrical cardioversion; it rises within 4–8 hours and returns to normal within 2–3 days. Copeptin may be useful to rule out MI rapidly when used along with troponin.

Myocardial infarctions are generally clinically classified into ST elevation MI (STEMI) and non-ST elevation MI (NSTEMI). These are based on changes to an ECG. STEMIs make up about 25 – 40% of myocardial infarctions. A more explicit classification system, based on international consensus in 2012, also exists. This classifies myocardial infarctions into five types:

1. Spontaneous MI related to plaque erosion and/or rupture, fissuring, or dissection

2. MI related to ischemia, such as from increased oxygen demand or decreased supply, e.g. coronary artery spasm, coronary embolism, anemia, arrhythmias, high blood pressure or low blood pressure

3. Sudden unexpected cardiac death, including cardiac arrest, where symptoms may suggest MI, an ECG may be taken with suggestive changes, or a blood clot is found in a coronary artery by angiography and/or at autopsy, but where blood samples could not be obtained, or at a time before the appearance of cardiac biomarkers in the blood

4. Associated with coronary angioplasty or stents

- Associated with percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)

- Associated with stent thrombosis as documented by angiography or at autopsy

5. Associated with CABG

A stress test, is just that, a test to put stress on the heart through exercise. A doctor will put a patient through a series of exercises to measure the tolerance for stress on the heart. This test uses an ECG to detect the electrical impulses of the heart during physical exertion.

During this test a patient is put on a treadmill or a stationary bike. The incline or resistance of the bike are steadily increased until the patient reaches the target heart rate for the patient's age and weight.

An exercise stress test is not always accurate in determining if one has a blockage in the arteries. Women and those who are young may show abnormalities on their test even though no signs of coronary ischemia or CAD are present.

A coronary angiography is performed only after a stress test or ECG shows a sign of coronary ischemia or CAD. This test is very important in finding where the blockages are in the arteries.

This test helps determine if an angioplasty or bypass surgery is needed.

During this test the doctor makes a small incision in the patient's groin (femoral) or wrist (radial) and inserts a catheter. The catheter has a very small video camera on the end of it so that the doctor can find the arteries.

Once he has found the arteries, he injects a dye in them so that he/she can detect any blockages in the arteries. The dye is able to be seen on a special x-ray machine.

The test takes one to two hours.

In "stable" angina, chest pain with typical features occurring at predictable levels of exertion, various forms of cardiac stress tests may be used to induce both symptoms and detect changes by way of electrocardiography (using an ECG), echocardiography (using ultrasound of the heart) or scintigraphy (using uptake of radionuclide by the heart muscle). If part of the heart seems to receive an insufficient blood supply, coronary angiography may be used to identify stenosis of the coronary arteries and suitability for angioplasty or bypass surgery.

Stable coronary artery disease (SCAD) is also often called stable ischemic heart disease (SIHD). A 2015 monograph explains that "Regardless of the nomenclature, stable angina is the chief manifestation of SIHD or SCAD." There are U.S. and European clinical practice guidelines for SIHD/SCAD.

Transfusion therapy lowers the risk for a new silent stroke in children who have both abnormal cerebral artery blood flow velocity, as detected by transcranial Doppler, and previous silent infarct, even when the initial MRI showed no abnormality. A finding of elevated TCD ultrasonographic velocity warrants MRI of the brain, as those with both abnormalities who are not provided transfusion therapy are at higher risk for developing a new silent infarct or stroke than are those whose initial MRI showed no abnormality.

Ischemic cardiomyopathy can be diagnosed via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) protocol, imaging both global and regional function. Also the Look-Locker technique is used to identify diffuse fibrosis; it is therefore important to be able to determine the extent of the ischemic scar. Some argue that only left main- or proximal-left anterior descending artery disease is relevant to the diagnostic criteria for ischemic cardiomyopathy. Myocardial imaging usually demonstrates left ventricular dilation, severe ventricular dysfunction, and multiple infarctions. Signs include congestive heart failure, angina edema, weight gain and fainting, among others.

One of the most important features differentiating ischemic cardiomyopathy from the other forms of cardiomyopathy is the shortened, or worsened all-cause mortality in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. According to several studies, coronary artery bypass graft surgery has a survival advantage over medical therapy (for ischemic cardiomyopathy) across varied follow-ups.

Preventive measures that can be taken to avoid sustaining a silent stroke are the same as for stroke. Smoking cessation is the most immediate step that can be taken, with the effective management of hypertension the major medically treatable factor.

Unstable angina is characterized by at least one of the following:

1. Occurs at rest or minimal exertion and usually lasts more than 20 minutes (if nitroglycerin is not administered)

2. Being severe (at least Canadian Cardiovascular Society Classification 3) and of new onset (i.e. within 1 month)

3. Occurs with a crescendo pattern (brought on by less activity, more severe, more prolonged or increased frequency than previously).

Fifty percent of people with unstable angina will have evidence of necrosis of the heart's muscular cells based on elevated cardiac serum markers such as creatine kinase isoenzyme (CK)-MB and troponin T or I, and thus have a diagnosis of non-ST elevation myocardial infarction.

After taking the patient’s history, a thorough neurologic exam is needed to identify focal neurologic deficits, paying attention to the cranial nerve, motor, sensory, and coordination components of the exam. After the history and physical exam, clinicians may move on to laboratory workup and imaging.

Laboratory workup

Laboratory tests should focus on ruling out metabolic conditions that may mimic TIA (e.g. hypoglycemia causing altered mental status), in addition to further evaluating a patient’s risk factors for ischemic events. All patients should receive a complete blood count with platelet count, blood glucose, basic metabolic panel, prothrombin time/international normalized ratio, and activated partial thromboplastin time as part of their initial workup. These tests help with screening for bleeding or hypercoagulable conditions. An electrocardiogram will also be necessary to rule out abnormal heart rhythms such as atrial fibrillation that can predispose patients to clot formation and embolic events. Other lab tests, such as a full hypercoagulable state workup or serum drug screening should be considered based on the clinical situation and factors such as age of the patient and family history. A fasting lipid panel is also appropriate to thoroughly evaluate the patient’s risk for atherosclerotic disease and ischemic events in the future.

Imaging:

According to guidelines from the American Heart Association and American Stroke Association Stroke Council, patients with TIA should have head imaging “within 24 hours of symptom onset, preferably with magnetic resonance imaging, including diffusion sequences”. MRI is a better imaging modality for TIA than computed tomography (CT), as it is better able to pick up both new and old ischemic lesions than CT. CT, however, is more widely available and can be used particularly to rule out intracranial hemorrhage. Diffusion sequences can help further localize the area of ischemia and can serve as prognostic indicators. Presence of ischemic lesions on diffusion weighted imaging has been correlated with a higher risk of stroke after a TIA.

Vessels in the head and neck may also be evaluated to look for atherosclerotic lesions that may benefit from interventions such as carotid endarterectomy. The vasculature can be evaluated through the following imaging modalities: magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), CT angiography (CTA), and carotid ultrasonography/transcranial doppler ultrasonography. Carotid ultrasonography is often used to screen for carotid artery stenosis, as it is more readily available. However, all of the above imaging methods have variable sensitivities and specificities, making it important to supplement one of the imaging methods with another to help confirm the diagnosis (for example: screen for the disease with ultrasonography, and confirm with CTA). Confirming a diagnosis of carotid artery stenosis is important because the treatment for this condition, carotid endarterectomy, can pose significant risk to the patient, including heart attacks and strokes after the procedure. For this reason, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) "recommends against screening for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis in the general adult population". This recommendation is for asymptomatic patients, so it does not necessarily apply to patients with TIAs as these may in fact be a symptom of underlying carotid artery disease (see "Causes and Pathogenesis" above). Therefore, patients who have had a TIA may opt to have a discussion with their clinician about the risks and benefits of screening for carotid artery stenosis, including the risks of surgical treatment of this condition.

Cardiac imaging can be performed if head and neck imaging do not reveal a vascular cause for the patient’s TIA (such as atherosclerosis of the carotid artery or other major vessels of the head and neck). Echocardiography can be performed to identify patent foramen ovale (PFO), valvular stenosis, and atherosclerosis of the aortic arch that could be sources of clots causing TIAs, with transesophageal echocardiography being more sensitive than transthoracic echocardiography in identifying these lesions. Prolonged cardiac rhythm monitoring can be considered to rule out arrhythmias like paroxysmal atrial fibrillation that may lead to clot formation and TIAs, however this should be considered if other causes of TIA have not been found.

After return of heart function, there has been a moderately higher risk of death in the hospital when compared to MI patients without PVF. Whether this still holds true with the recent changes in treatment strategies of earlier hospital admission and immediate angioplasty with thrombus removal is unknown. PVF does not affect the long-term prognosis.

The survival of PVF largely depends on the promptness of defibrillation. The success rate of prompt defibrillation during monitoring is currently higher than 95%. It is estimated that the success rate decreases by 10% for each additional minute of delay.

When a stroke has been diagnosed, various other studies may be performed to determine the underlying cause. With the current treatment and diagnosis options available, it is of particular importance to determine whether there is a peripheral source of emboli. Test selection may vary since the cause of stroke varies with age, comorbidity and the clinical presentation. The following are commonly used techniques:

- an ultrasound/doppler study of the carotid arteries (to detect carotid stenosis) or dissection of the precerebral arteries;

- an electrocardiogram (ECG) and echocardiogram (to identify arrhythmias and resultant clots in the heart which may spread to the brain vessels through the bloodstream);

- a Holter monitor study to identify intermittent abnormal heart rhythms;

- an angiogram of the cerebral vasculature (if a bleed is thought to have originated from an aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation);

- blood tests to determine if blood cholesterol is high, if there is an abnormal tendency to bleed, and if some rarer processes such as homocystinuria might be involved.

For hemorrhagic strokes, a CT or MRI scan with intravascular contrast may be able to identify abnormalities in the brain arteries (such as aneurysms) or other sources of bleeding, and structural MRI if this shows no cause. If this too does not identify an underlying reason for the bleeding, invasive cerebral angiography could be performed but this requires access to the bloodstream with an intravascular catheter and can cause further strokes as well as complications at the insertion site and this investigation is therefore reserved for specific situations. If there are symptoms suggesting that the hemorrhage might have occurred as a result of venous thrombosis, CT or MRI venography can be used to examine the cerebral veins.

Nutrition, specifically the Mediterranean-style diet, has the potential for decreasing the risk of having a stroke by more than half. It does not appear that lowering levels of homocysteine with folic acid affects the risk of stroke.

Angina should be suspected in people presenting tight, dull, or heavy chest discomfort that is:

1. Retrosternal or left-sided, radiating to the left arm, neck, jaw, or back.

2. Associated with exertion or emotional stress and relieved within several minutes by rest.

3. Precipitated by cold weather or a meal.

Some people present with atypical symptoms, including breathlessness, nausea, or epigastric discomfort or burning. These atypical symptoms are particularly likely in older people, women, and those with diabetes.

Anginal pain is not usually sharp or stabbing or influenced by respiration. Antacids and simple analgesics do not usually relieve the pain. If chest discomfort (of whatever site) is precipitated by exertion, relieved by rest, and relieved by glyceryl trinitrate, the likelihood of angina is increased.

In angina patients momentarily not feeling any chest pain, an electrocardiogram (ECG) is typically normal unless there have been other cardiac problems in the past. During periods of pain, depression, or elevation of the ST segment may be observed. To elicit these changes, an exercise ECG test ("treadmill test") may be performed, during which the patient exercises to his/her maximum ability before fatigue, breathlessness, or pain intervenes; if characteristic ECG changes are documented (typically more than 1 mm of flat or downsloping ST depression), the test is considered diagnostic for angina. Even constant monitoring of the blood pressure and the pulse rate can lead to some conclusion regarding angina. The exercise test is also useful in looking for other markers of myocardial ischemia: blood pressure response (or lack thereof, in particular, a drop in systolic blood pressure), dysrhythmia and chronotropic response. Other alternatives to a standard exercise test include a thallium scintigram or sestamibi scintigram (in patients unable to exercise enough for the purposes of the treadmill tests, e.g., due to asthma or arthritis or in whom the ECG is too abnormal at rest) or Stress Echocardiography.

In patients in whom such noninvasive testing is diagnostic, a coronary angiogram is typically performed to identify the nature of the coronary lesion, and whether this would be a candidate for angioplasty, coronary artery bypass graft (CABG), treatment only with medication, or other treatments. In hospitalized patients with unstable angina (or the newer term of "high-risk acute coronary syndromes"), those with resting ischaemic ECG changes or those with raised cardiac enzymes such as troponin may undergo coronary angiography directly.

Although there is a lack of robust studies demonstrating the efficacy of lifestyle changes in preventing TIA, many medical professionals recommend them. These include:

- Avoiding smoking

- Cutting down on fats to help reduce the amount of plaque build up

- Eating a healthy diet including plenty of fruits and vegetables

- Limiting sodium in the diet, thereby reducing blood pressure

- Exercising regularly

- Moderating intake of alcohol, stimulants, sympathomimetics, etc.

- Maintaining a healthy weight

In addition, it is important to control any underlying medical conditions that may increase the risk of stroke or TIA, including:

- Hypertension

- High cholesterol

- Diabetes mellitus

- Atrial fibrillation

Nitroglycerin can be used immediately to widen the coronary arteries and help increase blood flow to the heart. In addition, nitroglycerin causes peripheral venous and artery dilation reducing cardiac preload and afterload. These reductions allow for decreased stress on the heart and therefore lower the oxygen demand of the heart's muscle cells.

Antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin and clopidogrel can help reduce the progression of atherosclerotic plaque formation, as well as combining these with an anticoagulant such as a low molecular weight heparin.

Hospital admission for people with the following symptoms is recommended, as they may have unstable angina: pain at rest (which may occur at night), pain on minimal exertion, angina that seems to progress rapidly despite increasing medical treatment. All people with suspected angina should be urgently referred to a chest pain evaluation service, for confirmation of the diagnosis and assessment of the severity of coronary heart disease.

A complication that may occur in the acute setting soon after a myocardial infarction or in the weeks following is cardiogenic shock. Cardiogenic shock is defined as a hemodynamic state in which the heart cannot produce enough of a cardiac output to supply an adequate amount of oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body.

While the data on performing interventions on individuals with cardiogenic shock is sparse, trial data suggests a long-term mortality benefit in undergoing revascularization if the individual is less than 75 years old and if the onset of the acute myocardial infarction is less than 36 hours and the onset of cardiogenic shock is less than 18 hours. If the patient with cardiogenic shock is not going to be revascularized, aggressive hemodynamic support is warranted, with insertion of an intra-aortic balloon pump if not contraindicated. If diagnostic coronary angiography does not reveal a culprit blockage that is the cause of the cardiogenic shock, the prognosis is poor.

In addition to evaluating the symptoms above, the health care provider may find decreased or no blood pressure in the arm or leg.

Tests to determine any underlying cause for thrombosis or embolism and to confirm presence of the obstruction may include:

- Doppler ultrasound, especially duplex ultrasonography. It may also involve transcranial doppler exam of arteries to the brain

- Echocardiography, sometimes involving more specialized techniques such as Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) or myocardial contrast echocardiography (MCE) to diagnose myocardial infarction

- Arteriography of the affected extremity or organ Digital subtraction angiography is useful in individuals where administration of radiopaque contrast material must be kept to a minimum.

- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

- Blood tests for measuring elevated enzymes in the blood, including cardiac-specific troponin T and/or troponin I, myoglobins, and creatine kinase isoenzymes. These indicate embolisation to the heart that has caused myocardial infarction. Myoglobins and creatine kinase are also elevated in the blood in embolisation in other locations.

- Blood cultures may be done to identify the organism responsible for any causative infection

- Electrocardiography (ECG) for detecting myocardial infarction

- Angioscopy using a flexible fiberoptic catheter inserted directly into an artery.

In developed countries, with improved public health, infection control and increasing life spans, atheroma processes have become an increasingly important problem and burden for society.

Atheromata continue to be the primary underlying basis for disability and death, despite a trend for gradual improvement since the early 1960s (adjusted for patient age). Thus, increasing efforts towards better understanding, treating and preventing the problem are continuing to evolve.

According to United States data, 2004, for about 65% of men and 47% of women, the first symptom of cardiovascular disease is myocardial infarction (heart attack) or sudden death (death within one hour of symptom onset).

A significant proportion of artery flow-disrupting events occur at locations with less than 50% lumenal narrowing. Cardiac stress testing, traditionally the most commonly performed noninvasive testing method for blood flow limitations, generally only detects lumen narrowing of ~75% or greater, although some physicians advocate nuclear stress methods that can sometimes detect as little as 50%.

The sudden nature of the complications of pre-existing atheroma, vulnerable plaque (non-occlusive or soft plaque), have led, since the 1950s, to the development of intensive care units and complex medical and surgical interventions. Angiography and later cardiac stress testing was begun to either visualize or indirectly detect stenosis. Next came bypass surgery, to plumb transplanted veins, sometimes arteries, around the stenoses and more recently angioplasty, now including stents, most recently drug coated stents, to stretch the stenoses more open.

Yet despite these medical advances, with success in reducing the symptoms of angina and reduced blood flow, atheroma rupture events remain the major problem and still sometimes result in sudden disability and death despite even the most rapid, massive and skilled medical and surgical intervention available anywhere today. According to some clinical trials, bypass surgery and angioplasty procedures have had at best a minimal effect, if any, on improving overall survival. Typically mortality of bypass operations is between 1 and 4%, of angioplasty between 1 and 1.5%.

Additionally, these vascular interventions are often done only after an individual is symptomatic, often already partially disabled, as a result of the disease. It is also clear that both angioplasty and bypass interventions do not prevent future heart attack.

The older methods for understanding atheroma, dating to before World War II, relied on autopsy data. Autopsy data has long shown initiation of fatty streaks in later childhood with slow asymptomatic progression over decades.

One way to see atheroma is the very invasive and costly IVUS ultrasound technology; it gives us the precise volume of the inside intima plus the central media layers of about of artery length. Unfortunately, it gives no information about the structural strength of the artery. Angiography does not visualize atheroma; it only makes the blood flow within blood vessels visible. Alternative methods that are non or less physically invasive and less expensive per individual test have been used and are continuing to be developed, such as those using computed tomography (CT; led by the electron beam tomography form, given its greater speed) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The most promising since the early 1990s has been EBT, detecting calcification within the atheroma before most individuals start having clinically recognized symptoms and debility. Interestingly, statin therapy (to lower cholesterol) does not slow the speed of calcification as determined by CT scan. MRI coronary vessel wall imaging, although currently limited to research studies, has demonstrated the ability to detect vessel wall thickening in asymptomatic high risk individuals. As a non-invasive, ionising radiation free technique, MRI based techniques could have future uses in monitoring disease progression and regression. Most visualization techniques are used in research, they are not widely available to most patients, have significant technical limitations, have not been widely accepted and generally are not covered by medical insurance carriers.

From human clinical trials, it has become increasingly evident that a more effective focus of treatment is slowing, stopping and even partially reversing the atheroma growth process. There are several prospective epidemiologic studies including the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study and the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS), which have supported a direct correlation of Carotid Intima-media thickness (CIMT) with myocardial infarction and stroke risk in patients without cardiovascular disease history. The ARIC Study was conducted in 15,792 individuals between 5 and 65 years of age in four different regions of the US between 1987 and 1989. The baseline CIMT was measured and measurements were repeated at 4- to 7-year intervals by carotid B mode ultrasonography in this study. An increase in CIMT was correlated with an increased risk for CAD. The CHS was initiated in 1988, and the relationship of CIMT with risk of myocardial infarction and stroke was investigated in 4,476 subjects ≤65 years of age. At the end of approximately six years of follow-up, CIMT measurements were correlated with cardiovascular events.

Paroi artérielle et Risque Cardiovasculaire in Asia Africa/Middle East and Latin America (PARC-AALA) is another important large-scale study, in which 79 centers from countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America participated, and the distribution of CIMT according to different ethnic groups and its association with the Framingham cardiovascular score was investigated. Multi-linear regression analysis revealed that an increased Framingham cardiovascular score was associated with CIMT, and carotid plaque independent of geographic differences.

Cahn et al. prospectively followed-up 152 patients with coronary artery disease for 6–11 months by carotid artery ultrasonography and noted 22 vascular events (myocardial infarction, transient ischemic attack, stroke, and coronary angioplasty) within this time period. They concluded that carotid atherosclerosis measured by this non-interventional method has prognostic significance in coronary artery patients.

In the Rotterdam Study, Bots et al. followed 7,983 patients >55 years of age for a mean period of 4.6 years, and reported 194 incident myocardial infarctions within this period. CIMT was significantly higher in the myocardial infarction group compared to the other group. Demircan et al. found that the CIMT of patients with acute coronary syndrome were significantly increased compared to patients with stable angina pectoris.

It has been reported in another study that a maximal CIMT value of 0.956 mm had 85.7% sensitivity and 85.1% specificity to predict angiographic CAD. The study group consisted of patients admitted to the cardiology outpatient clinic with symptoms of stable angina pectoris. The study showed CIMT was higher in patients with significant CAD than in patients with non-critical coronary lesions. Regression analysis revealed that thickening of the mean intima-media complex more than 1.0 was predictive of significant CAD our patients. There was incremental significant increase in CIMT with the number coronary vessel involved. In accordance with the literature, it was found that CIMT was significantly higher in the presence of CAD. Furthermore, CIMT was increased as the number of involved vessels increased and the highest CIMT values were noted in patients with left main coronary involvement. However, human clinical trials have been slow to provide clinical & medical evidence, partly because the asymptomatic nature of atheromata make them especially difficult to study. Promising results are found using carotid intima-media thickness scanning (CIMT can be measured by B-mode ultrasonography), B-vitamins that reduce a protein corrosive, homocysteine and that reduce neck carotid artery plaque volume and thickness, and stroke, even in late-stage disease.

Additionally, understanding what drives atheroma development is complex with multiple factors involved, only some of which, such as lipoproteins, more importantly lipoprotein subclass analysis, blood sugar levels and hypertension are best known and researched. More recently, some of the complex immune system patterns that promote, or inhibit, the inherent inflammatory macrophage triggering processes involved in atheroma progression are slowly being better elucidated in animal models of atherosclerosis.

The Swan-Ganz catheter or pulmonary artery catheter may assist in the diagnosis by providing information on the hemodynamics.

When cardiomyopathy is suspected as the cause of cardiogenic shock, a biopsy of heart muscle may be needed to make a definite diagnosis.