The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommend that all women 65 years of age or older be screened by bone densitometry. Additionally they recommend screening women with increased risk factors that puts them at risk equivalent to a 65‑year‑old. There is insufficient evidence to make recommendations about the intervals for repeated screening and the appropriate age to stop screening. In men the harm versus benefit of screening for osteoporosis is unknown. Prescrire states that the need to test for osteoporosis in those who have not had a previous bone fracture is unclear. The International Society for Clinical Densitometry, however, suggest BMD testing for men 70 or older, or those who are indicated for risk equal to that of a 70‑year‑old. A number of tools exist to help determine who is reasonable to test.

Quantitative computed tomography differs from DXA in that it gives separate estimates of BMD for trabecular and cortical bone and reports precise volumetric mineral density in mg/cm rather than BMD's relative Z score. Among QCT's advantages: it can be performed at axial and peripheral sites, can be calculated from existing CT scans without a separate radiation dose, is sensitive to change over time, can analyze a region of any size or shape, excludes irrelevant tissue such as fat, muscle, and air, and does not require knowledge of the patient's subpopulation in order to create a clinical score (e.g. the Z-score of all females of a certain age). Among QCT's disadvantages: it requires a high radiation dose compared to DXA, CT scanners are large and expensive, and because its practice has been less standardized than BMD, its results are more operator-dependent. Peripheral QCT has been introduced to improve upon the limitations of DXA and QCT.

Quantitative ultrasound has many advantages in assessing osteoporosis. The modality is small, no ionizing radiation is involved, measurements can be made quickly and easily, and the cost of the device is low compared with DXA and QCT devices. The calcaneus is the most common skeletal site for quantitative ultrasound assessment because it has a high percentage of trabecular bone that is replaced more often than cortical bone, providing early evidence of metabolic change. Also, the calcaneus is fairly flat and parallel, reducing repositioning errors. The method can be applied to children, neonates, and preterm infants, just as well as to adults. Some ultrasound devices can be used on the tibia.

No treatment is required, but neoplastic processes (metastatic maliganancy to the submandibular lymph nodes and/or salivary gland tumours) should be ruled out. This is usually done with clinical exam and imaging. Very rarely, since the defect contains salivary gland tissue, salivary gland tumors can occur within an established defect but there is likely no difference in the risk of neoplasia in salivary gland tissue at other sites.

Osteomyelitis (bone infection), which is much more common than infantile cortical hyperostosis, must be excluded, since it requires urgent treatment. Other diagnoses that can mimic this disorder and need to be excluded include physical trauma, child abuse, Vitamin A excess, hyperphosphatemia, prostaglandin E1 and E2 administration, scurvy, infections (including syphilis), Ewing sarcoma, and metastatic neuroblastoma.

Most infants with infantile cortical hyperostosis are diagnosed by physical examination. X-rays can confirm the presence of bone changes and soft tissue swelling. Biopsy of the affected areas can confirm the presence of typical histopathological changes. No specific blood tests exist, but tests such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and alkaline phosphatase levels are often elevated. A complete blood count may show anemia (low red blood cell count) and leukocytosis (high white blood cell count). Other tests may be done to help exclude other diagnoses. Ultrasound imaging can help diagnose prenatal cases.

Stafne defect is uncommon, and has been reported to develop anywhere between the ages of 11 and 30 years old, (although the defect is developmental, it does not seem to be present form birth, implying that the lesion develops at a later age). Usually the defect is unilateral (on one side only) and most commonly occurs in men.

The diagnosis is usually initially made by a combination of physical exam and MRI of the shoulder, which can be done with or without the injection of intraarticular contrast. The presence of contrast allows for better evaluation of the glenoid labrum.

Wobblers is definitively diagnosed by x-ray, nuclear scintography or bone scan. X-rays will show channel widening or filling the easiest and are often most cost effective to horse owners. X-rays will also show any structural anomaly, arthritis, facet remodeling, or bone spurs present. Preliminary diagnosis can be made by ultrasound but x-rays are needed to measure the true depth of facet involvement. For extent of damage to associated structures, veterinarians may opt to have the horse undergo a bone scan or nuclear scintography.

Kyphosis can be graded in severity by the Cobb angle. Also, "sagittal balance" can be measured. The sagittal balance is the horizontal distance between the center of C7 and the superior-posterior border of the endplate of S1 on a lateral radiograph. An offset of more than 2.5 cm anteriorly or posteriorly is considered to be abnormal.

Arthroscopic repair of Bankart injuries have high success rates, with studies showing that nearly one-third of patients require re-intervention for continued shoulder instability following repair. Options for repair include an arthroscopic technique or a more invasive open Latarjet procedure, with the open technique tending to have a lower incidence of recurrent dislocation, but also a reduced range of motion following surgery.

Till date about 18 cases of Spondylocostal dysostosis have been reported in literature.

The heterogeneity of the Klippel–Feil syndrome has made it difficult to outline the diagnosis as well as the prognosis classes for this disease. Because of this, it has complicated the exact explanation of the genetic cause of the syndrome.

The prognosis for most individuals with KFS is good if the disorder is treated early on and appropriately. Activities that can injure the neck should be avoided, as it may contribute to further damage. Other diseases associated with the syndrome can be fatal if not treated, or if found too late to be treatable.

In 1968, Dr. David Rimoin and colleagues in Baltimore first distinguished between the two major presentations of Jarcho-Levin. Both conditions were characterized as failures of proper vertebral segmentation. However, the condition within the family described in their article appeared to be inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion and had a less severe course than that reported by other investigators. They specified their condition as spondylocostal dysplasia, which has since become known as spondylocostal dysostosis. The subtype of Jarcho-Levin with which they contrasted their reported cases to is now known as spondylothoracic dysplasia.

Historically, the detection of spinal misalignments (subluxations) by the chiropractic profession has relied on X-ray findings and physical examination. At least 2 of the following 4 physical signs and/or symptoms must be documented to qualify for reimbursement:

- Pain and tenderness

- Asymmetry/misalignment

- Range of motion abnormality

- Tissue/tone changes

Joint stability is easily evaluated by the use of flexion and extension lateral x-ray views of the spine.

A summary of part of the DRE tables () give a guide as to the implications of the joint instability. If either translation or angular change is determined from flexion to extension to the degree shown in the table below, then Category IV instability is present. This would mean that 20% to 23% “whole person impairment” is present at each level where this if found. In calculating the total whole person impairment it is NOT merely the case of adding the percentages. This calculation is best left to your health care provider. See also Joint stability.

Translation is a gliding motion where one bone of a joint glides over its neighbour.

The basic method to check for a clavicle fracture is by an X-ray of the clavicle to determine the fracture type and extent of injury. In former times, X-rays were taken of both clavicle bones for comparison purposes. Due to the curved shape in a tilted plane X-rays are typically oriented with ~15° upwards facing tilt from the front. In more severe cases, a computerized tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is taken.

However, the standard method of diagnosis through ultrasound imaging performed in the emergency room may be equally accurate in children.

It has been proposed that a vertebral subluxation can negatively affect general health by altering the neurological communication between the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. Although individuals may not always be symptomatic, straight chiropractors believe that the presence of vertebral subluxation is in itself justification for correction via spinal adjustment.

Chiropractic treatment of vertebral subluxation focuses on delivering a chiropractic adjustment which is a high velocity low amplitude (HVLA) thrust to the dysfunctional spinal segments to help correct the chiropractic subluxation complex. Spinal adjustment is the primary procedure used by chiropractors in the adjustment. Adjustment/manipulation has been shown to help with low back pain, neck pain and tension type headaches, but further studies are inconclusive on the use of spinal manipulation outside the treatment of neuromusculoskeletal disorders.

Doctors often recommend physical therapy in order to strengthen the subscapularis muscle, and prescribe anti-inflammatory medications. For extreme cases, cortisone injections would be utilized.

Surgery is usually only used if the non-surgical treatments have failed. Bone abnormalities may need surgical attention. The most common surgery for snapping scapula requires the surgeon to “take out a small piece of the upper corner of the scapula nearest to the spine.”

Sprengel's deformity (also known as high scapula or congenital high scapula) is a rare congenital skeletal abnormality where a person has one shoulder blade that sits higher on the back than the other. The deformity is due to a failure in early fetal development where the shoulder fails to descend properly from the neck to its final position. The deformity is commonly associated with other conditions, most notably Klippel-Feil syndrome, congenital scoliosis including cervical scoliosis, fused ribs, the presence of an omovertebral bone and spina bifida. The left shoulder is the most commonly affected shoulder but the condition can be bilateral, meaning that both shoulders are affected. About 75% of all observed cases are girls. Treatment includes surgery in early childhood and physical therapy. Surgical treatment in adulthood is complicated by the risk of nerve damage when removing the omovertebral bone and when stretching the muscle tissue during relocation of the shoulder.

While a transverse lie prior to labor can be manually versed to a longitudinal lie, once the uterus starts contracting the uterus normally will not allow any version procedure. A shoulder presentation is an indication for a caesarean section. Generally, as it is diagnosed early, the baby is not damaged by the time of delivery. With the rupture of the membranes, there is an increased risk of a cord prolapse as the shoulder may not completely block the birth canal. Thus the caesarean section is ideally performed before the membranes break.

The lesion is associated with any damage to the antero-inferior labrum. Most commonly due to anterior shoulder dislocation. The lesion often occurs after the initial dislocation. In chronic cases there may be fibrosis and resynovialization of the labrum and periosteum.

The lesion is best identified on MR arthrography. Additional views in "ABER" (ABduction and External Rotation) of the shoulder aid in this diagnosis.

Differential diagnoses include:

- Bankart lesion

- Bankart lesion

- Alpsa lesion

- GLAD

- HAGL

- BHAGL

Treatment is surgical re-attachment of the labrum preferably via arthroscopy.

Schmorl's nodes can be detected with x-ray, although they can be imaged better by CT or MRI. They are considered to be vertical disc herniations through the cartilaginous vertebral body endplates. Schmorl's nodes can sometimes be seen radiographically, however they are more often seen on MRI, even when not visible on plain film x-ray. They may or may not be symptomatic, and their etiological significance for back pain is controversial. In a study in Spine by Hamanishi, et al., Schmorl's nodes were observed on MRI in 19% of 400 patients with back pain, and in only 9% of an asymptomatic control group. The authors concluded that Schmorl's nodes are areas of "vertical disc herniation" through areas of weakness in the endplate.

The risk of serious complications from spinal fusion surgery for kyphosis is estimated to be 5%, similar to the risks of surgery for scoliosis. Possible complications include inflammation of the soft tissue or deep inflammatory processes, breathing impairments, bleeding, and nerve injuries. According to the latest evidence, the actual rate of complications may be substantially higher. Even among those who do not suffer from serious complications, 5% of patients require reoperation within five years of the procedure, and in general it is not yet clear what one would expect from spine surgery during the long-term. Taking into account that signs and symptoms of spinal deformity cannot be changed by surgical intervention, surgery remains to be a cosmetic indication. Unfortunately, the cosmetic effects of surgery are not necessarily stable.

Treatment for Klippel–Feil syndrome is symptomatic and may include surgery to relieve cervical or craniocervical instability and constriction of the spinal cord, and to correct scoliosis.

Failing non-surgical therapies, spinal surgery may provide relief. Adjacent segment disease and scoliosis are two examples of common symptoms associated with Klippel–Feil syndrome, and they may be treated surgically. The three categories treated for types of spinal cord deficiencies are massive fusion of the cervical spine (Type I), the fusion of 1 or 2 vertebrae (Type II), and the presence of thoracic and lumbar spine anomalies in association with type I or type II Klippel–Feil syndrome (Type III).

Adjacent segment disease can be addressed by performing cervical disc arthroplasty using a device such as the Bryan cervical disc prosthesis.

The option of the surgery is to maintain range of motion and attenuate the rate of adjacent segment disease advancement without fusion.

Another type of arthroplasty that is becoming an alternate choice to spinal fusion is Total Disc Replacement. Total disc replacement objective is to reduce pain or eradicate it.

Spinal fusion is commonly used to correct spinal deformities such as scoliosis. Arthrodesis is the last resort in pain relieving procedures, usually when arthroplasties fail.