If a small amount of bleeding is seen in early pregnancy a physician may request:

- A quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) blood test to confirm the pregnancy or assist in diagnosing a potential miscarriage

- Transvaginal pelvic ultrasonography to confirm that the pregnancy is not outside of the uterus

- Blood type and Rh test to rule out hemolytic disease of the newborn

For bleeding seen in later pregnancy tests may include:

- Complete blood count (CBC) and blood type and screen

- Ultrasound to determine placental location

- Kleihauer-Betke (KB) test especially if there was maternal trauma

Previa can be confirmed with an ultrasound. Transvaginal ultrasound has superior accuracy as compared to transabdominal one, thus allowing measurement of distance between placenta and cervical os. This has rendered traditional classification of placenta previa obsolete.

False positives may be due to following reasons:

- Overfilled bladder compressing lower uterine segment

- Myometrial contraction simulating placental tissue in abnormally low location

- Early pregnancy low position, which in third trimester may be entirely normal due to differential growth of the uterus.

In such cases, repeat scanning is done after an interval of 15–30 minutes.

In parts of the world where ultrasound is unavailable, it is not uncommon to confirm the diagnosis with an examination in the surgical theatre. The proper timing of an examination in theatre is important. If the woman is not bleeding severely she can be managed non-operatively until the 36th week. By this time the baby's chance of survival is as good as at full term.

History may reveal antepartum hemorrhage. Abdominal examination usually finds the uterus non-tender, soft and relaxed. Leopold's Maneuvers may find the fetus in an oblique or breech position or lying transverse as a result of the abnormal position of the placenta. Malpresentation is found in about 35% cases. Vaginal examination is avoided in known cases of placenta previa.

Pregnant patients may have bleeding from the reproductive tract due to trauma, including sexual trauma, neoplasm, most commonly cervical cancer, and hematologic disorders. Molar pregnancy (also called hydatiform mole) is a type of pregnancy where the sperm and the egg have joined within the uterus, but the result is a cyst resembling a grape-like cluster rather than an embryo. Bleeding can be an early sign of this tumor developing.

Oxytocin is typically used right after the delivery of the baby to prevent PPH. Misoprostol may be used in areas where oxytocin is not available. Early clamping of the umbilical cord does not decrease risks and may cause anemia in the baby, thus is usually not recommended.

Active management of the third stage is a method of shortening the stage between when the baby is born and when the placenta is delivered. This stage is when the mother is at risk of having a PPH. Active management involves giving a drug which helps the uterus contract before delivering the placenta by a gentle but sustained pull on the umbilical cord whilst exerting upward pressure on the lower abdomen to support the uterus.

Another method of active management which is not recommended now is fundal pressure. A review into this method found no research and advises controlled cord traction because fundal pressure can cause the mother unnecessary pain. Allowing the cord to drain appears to shorten the third stage and reduce blood loss but evidence around this subject is not strong enough to draw solid conclusions.

Nipple stimulation and breastfeeding triggers the release of natural oxytocin in the body, therefore it is thought that encouraging the baby to suckle soon after birth may reduce the risk of PPH for the mother. A review looking into this did not find enough good research to say whether or not nipple stimulation did reduce PPH. More research is needed to answer this question.

Chorioamnionitis can be diagnosed from a histologic examination of the fetal membranes.

Infiltration of the chorionic plate by neutrophils is diagnostic of (mild) chorioamnionitis. More severe chorioamnionitis involves subamniotic tissue and may have fetal membrane necrosis and/or abscess formation.

Severe chorioamnionitis may be accompanied by vasculitis of the umbilical blood vessels (due to the fetus' inflammatory cells) and, if very severe, funisitis (inflammation of the umbilical cord's connective tissue).

It is recommended that women with vasa previa should deliver through elective cesarean prior to rupture of the membranes. Given the timing of membrane rupture is difficult to predict, elective cesarean delivery at 35–36 weeks is recommended. This gestational age gives a reasonable balance between the risk of death and that of prematurity. Several authorities have recommended hospital admission about 32 weeks. This is to give the patient proximity to the operating room for emergency delivery should the membranes rupture. Because these patients are at risk for preterm delivery, it is recommended that steroids should be given to promote fetal lung maturation. When bleeding occurs, the patient goes into labor, or if the membranes rupture, immediate treatment with an emergency caesarean delivery is usually indicated.

A detailed stepwise management protocol has been introduced by the California Maternity Quality Care Collaborative. It describes 4 stages of obstetrical hemorrhage after childbirth and its application reduces maternal mortality.

- Stage 0: normal - treated with fundal massage and oxytocin.

- Stage 1: more than normal bleeding - establish large-bore intravenous access, assemble personnel, increase oxytocin, consider use of methergine, perform fundal massage, prepare 2 units of packed red blood cells.

- Stage 2: bleeding continues - check coagulation status, assemble response team, move to operating room, place intrauterine balloon, administer additional uterotonics (misoprostol, carboprost tromethamine), consider: uterine artery embolization, dilatation and curettage, and laparotomy with uterine compression stitches or hysterectomy.

- Stage 3: bleeding continues - activate massive transfusion protocol, mobilize additional personnel, recheck laboratory tests, perform laparotomy, consider hysterectomy.

A Cochrane review suggests that active management (use of uterotonic drugs, cord clamping and controlled cord traction) during the third stage of labour reduces severe bleeding and anemia. However, the review also found that active management increased the mother's blood pressure, nausea, vomiting, and pain. In the active management group more women returned to hospital with bleeding after discharge, and there was also a reduction in birthweight due to infants having a lower blood volume. The effects on the baby of early cord clamping was discussed in another review which found that delayed cord clamping improved iron stores longer term in the infants. Although they were more likely to need phototherapy (light therapy) to treat jaundice, the improved iron stores are expected to be worth increasing the practice of delayed cord clamping in healthy term babies. For preterm babies (babies born before 37 weeks) a review of the research found that delaying cord clamping by 30–45 seconds increased the amount of blood flow to the baby. This is important as increased blood volume in the baby made them less likely to develop some serious complications. Much of the research around this subject is poor quality so further, larger research projects are likely to produce more reliable results.

Another Cochrane review looking at the timing of the giving oxytocin as part of the active management found similar benefits with giving it before or after the expulsion of the placenta.

There is no good quality evidence on how best to treat a secondary PPH (PPH occurring 24 hrs or more after the birth).

Instead of referring to "fetal distress" current recommendations hold to look for more specific signs and symptoms, assess them, and take the appropriate steps to remedy the situationthrough the implementation of intrauterine resuscitation. Traditionally the diagnosis of "fetal distress" led the obstetrician to recommend rapid delivery by instrumental delivery or by caesarean section if vaginal delivery is not advised.

Precipitate delivery may cause intracranial hemorrhage resulting from a sudden change in pressure on the fetal head during rapid expulsion.

It may cause aspiration of amniotic fluid, if unattended at or immediately following delivery.

There may be infection as a result of unsterile delivery.

Upon diagnosis, many providers will prescribe Ursodeoxycholic Acid. While there is no cure for ICP, and no way to guarantee a successful outcome, studies have shown a slightly better fetal and maternal outcome from administration of Ursodeoxycholic Acid, whereas Cholestyramine appears to only relieve itching.

If additional blood tests to check clotting function identify a problem, giving Vitamin K may help avoid the risk of hemorrhage at delivery.

Delivery by 35–37 completed weeks may be important to fetal outcome as a recent study demonstrated that in severe ICP (defined as bile acids greater than 40 umol/L) the risk of stillbirth was 1.5% compared to 0.5% of uncomplicated pregnancies. This risk rose further if bile acids doubled,

Obstetric ultrasound has become useful in the assessment of the cervix in women at risk for premature delivery. A short cervix preterm is undesirable: A cervical length of less than 25 mm at or before 24 weeks of gestational age is the most common definition of cervical incompetence.

Fetal fibronectin (fFN) has become an important biomarker—the presence of this glycoprotein in the cervical or vaginal secretions indicates that the border between the chorion and deciduas has been disrupted. A positive test indicates an increased risk of preterm birth, and a negative test has a high predictive value. It has been shown that only 1% of women in questionable cases of preterm labor delivered within the next week when the test was negative.

While most pregnant women experience some itch from time to time, itching on the palms and soles without a visible rash, or persisting severe or extensive itch symptoms should be reported to the midwife or obstetrican.

To obtain a diagnosis of ICP, there are two LFT (liver function tests) and Serum bile acid test. The liver function tests (LFTs) is a simple blood test, the results of which should be available by the next day. If the ALT level is elevated, this, plus pruritus of palms and soles, could be considered as potentially diagnostic of ICP but only with elevated bile acid levels (however LFTs are not always elevated in ICP patients). The serum bile acid blood test for ICP is a quantitative measurement of bile salts. The results of this test often take longer to return, but the test is more specific for ICP.

Other problems with the liver that occur in pregnancy should be considered by the treating clinician. These include preeclampsia, the HELLP syndrome, and acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Furthermore, other causes of hepatitis, like hepatitis viruses, cancer and certain medications, should also be considered.

There are several misfortunes associated with precipitate delivery for both the mother and the infant. They are classified as maternal and neonatal.

Chorioamnionitis is a risk factor for periventricular leukomalacia and cerebral palsy.

The exact incidence of maternal mortality related to placenta accreta and its complications is unknown, but has been reported to be as high as 6-7% in case series and surveys.

When a baby is born bottom first there is more risk that the birth will not be straight forward and that the baby could be harmed. For example, when the baby's head passes through the mother’s pelvis the umbilical cord can be compressed which prevents delivery of oxygenated blood to the baby. Due to this and other risks, babies in breech position are usually born by a planned caesarean section in developed countries.

Caesarean section reduces the risk of harm or death for the baby but does increase risk of harm to the mother compared with a vaginal delivery. It is best if the baby is in a head down position so that they can be born vaginally with less risk of harm to both mother and baby. The next section is looking at External cephalic version or ECV which is a method that can help the baby turn from a breech position to a head down position.

Vaginal birth of a breech baby has its risks but caesarean sections are not always available or possible, a mother might arrive in hospital at a late stage of her labour or may choose not to have a caesarean section. In these cases, it is important that the clinical skills needed to deliver breech babies are not lost so that mothers and babies are as safe as possible. Compared with developed countries, planned caesarean sections have not produced as good results in developing countries - it is suggested that this is due to more breech vaginal deliveries being performed by experienced, skilled practitioners in these settings.

In twin pregnancies, it is very common for one or both babies to be in the breech position. Most often twin babies do not have the chance to turn around because they are born prematurely. If both babies are in the breech position and the mother has gone into labour early, a cesarean section may be the best option. About 30-40% of twin pregnancies result in only one baby being in the breech position. If this is the case, the babies can be born vaginally. After the first baby who is not in the breech position is delivered, the baby who is presented in the breech position may turn itself around, if this does not happen another procedure may performed called the breech extraction. The breech extraction is the procedure that involves the obstetrician grabbing the second twin's feet and pulling him/her into the birth canal. This will help with delivering the second twin vaginally. However, if the second twin is larger than the first, complications with delivering the second twin vaginally may arise and a cesarean section should be performed. At times, the first twin (the twin closest to the birth canal) can be in the breech position with the second twin being in the cephalic position (vertical). When this occurs, risks of complications are higher than normal. In particular, a serious complication known as Locked twins. This is when both babies interlock their chins during labour. When this happens a cesarean section should be performed immediately.

Since locked twins are often diagnosed in the late stages of delivery, it is often too late to intervene to save the life of the first twin and thus there is a high rate of stillbirth, estimated to be over 50%.

Principles of management are to treat the shock and replace the uterus. The patient should be moved rapidly to the OR to facilitate anesthesia monitoring during this procedure. Usually this complication is only recognized after delivery of the placenta, wherein pitocin has already been started, which just exacerbates the problem. The uterus clamps down around the inversion making it very difficult to perform a replacement. This is a true obstetrical emergency, so extra doctors, nurses, anesthesiologists should be summoned to the room to assist. The pitocin should be turned off immediately. Giving tocolytics such as terbutaline or magnesium sulfate have a lower success rate. Halothane and Nitroglycerine (100mcg to 200 mcg intravenously) have a higher success rate.

Once you have achieved uterine relaxation, place your fist into the vagina. Find the biggest part of the inversion and push with your fist cephalward to replace the uterus. This takes firm steady force, so keep your fist in the vagina if you need to rest your hand. Then continue more force toward the fundus to replace the uterus. You can use your left hand on the outside of the abdomen to help you feel where the fundus should be replaced. This helps guide the angle of your fist in replacing the uterus. Once it is replaced, give the patient Misoprostol 1000 mcgs rectally to help with increasing uterine tone. Other medications such as Methergine and Hemabate can be used. If you have heavy bleeding, consider inserting a Bakri balloon into the uterine cavity to tamponade the bleeding.

These patients have usually sustained heavy blood loss, and should be monitored in the ICU postoperatively. If you have given nitroglycerine, they must have cardiac monitoring postoperatively.

Other personnel should be monitoring vital signs, ordering blood products, assisting the anesthesiologist, drawing labs, and stabilizing the patient. Remember that nitroglycerine can cause hypotension, which can be reversed with ephedrine.

If external replacement fails, a laparotomy may be required, in which the uterus is gently pulled the right way round using forceps.

This is equivalent of zero intervention. It has been associated with almost 100% mortality rate of one or all fetuses. Exceptions to this include patients that are still in Stage 1 TTTS and are past 22 weeks gestation.

A staging system proposed by fetal surgeon Dr. Ruben Quintero is commonly used to classify the severity of TTTS.

Stage I: A small amount of amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios) is found around the donor twin and a large amount of amniotic fluid (polyhydramnios) is found around the recipient twin.

Stage II: In addition to the description above, the ultrasound is not able to identify the bladder in the donor twin.

Stage III: In addition to the characteristics of Stages I and II, there is abnormal blood flow in the umbilical cords of the twins.

Stage IV: In addition to all of the above findings, the recipient twin has swelling under the skin and appears to be experiencing heart failure (fetal hydrops).

Stage V: In addition to all of the above findings, one of the twins has died. This can happen to either twin. The risk to either the donor or the recipient is roughly equal & is quite high in Stage II or higher TTTS.

The Quintero staging does not provide information about prognosis, and other staging systems have been proposed.

If locked twins are diagnosed in early delivery, before either twin is born, both fetuses can be delivered by Caesarean section. If one fetus has been partially born, attempts can be made to disimpact the twins manually, such as by the Zavanelli maneuver, with a view to performing an assisted delivery with ventouse or forceps. If the diagnosis is made only after the first locked twin has died in the birth canal, or if it is not expected to survive, the first twin may be decapitated and its head pushed up to allow safe delivery of the second twin.

At least one case has been reported where hexoprenaline was used to relax the uterine smooth muscle and thereby temporarily inhibit labour so that the fetal heads could be disimpacted.

Convulsions during pregnancy that are unrelated to pre-eclampsia need to be distinguished from eclampsia. Such disorders include seizure disorders as well as brain tumor, aneurysm of the brain, and medication- or drug-related seizures. Usually the presence of the signs of severe pre-eclampsia precede and accompany eclampsia, facilitating the diagnosis.