Little is known in terms of effective means of prevention. Due to the low likelihood of transmission even from an infected mother, it is not recommended to expose the mother and child to the additional risks of caesarean section to prevent the transmission of this disease during vaginal childbirth. Opting for a caesarean section does not guarantee that transmission will not still occur.

Laryngeal papillomatosis can be diagnosed through visualization of the lesions using one of several indirect laryngoscopy procedures. In indirect laryngoscopy, the tongue is pulled forward and a laryngeal mirror or a rigid scope is passed through the mouth to examine the larynx. Another variation of indirect laryngoscopy involves passing a flexible scope, known as a fiberscope or endoscope, through the nose and into the throat to visualize the larynx from above. This procedure is also called flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy.

The appearance of papillomas has been described as multiple or rarely, single, white growths with a lumpy texture similar to cauliflower. Papillomas usually present in the larynx, especially on the vocal folds and in the space above the vocal folds called the ventricles. They can spread to other parts of the larynx and throughout the aerodigestive tract, from the mouth to the lower respiratory tract. Spread to regions beyond the larynx is more common in children then adults. Growths tend to be located at normal junctions in squamous and ciliated epithelium or at tissue junctions arising from injury.

A confirmatory diagnosis of laryngeal papillomatosis can only be obtained through a biopsy, involving microscopic examination and HPV testing of a sample of the growth. Biopsy samples are collected under general anesthesia, either through direct laryngoscopy or fiberoptic bronchoscopy.

Studies have found heightened HPV in mouth cell samples from people with squamous cell carcinoma of the mouth. Studies have not found significant HPV in mouth cells after sampling with toothbrushes (5 of 2,619 samples) and cytobrushes (no oral transmission found).

According to the National Cancer Institute, “The most common test detects DNA from several high-risk HPV types, but it cannot identify the type(s) that are present. Another test is specific for DNA from HPV types 16 and 18, the two types that cause most HPV-associated cancers. A third test can detect DNA from several high-risk HPV types and can indicate whether HPV-16 or HPV-18 is present. A fourth test detects RNA from the most common high-risk HPV types. These tests can detect HPV infections before cell abnormalities are evident.

“Theoretically, the HPV DNA and RNA tests could be used to identify HPV infections in cells taken from any part of the body. However, the tests are approved by the FDA for only two indications: for follow-up testing of women who seem to have abnormal Pap test results and for cervical cancer screening in combination with a Pap test among women over age 30.”

In April 2011, the Food and Drug Administration approved the cobas HPV Test, manufactured by Roche. This cervical cancer screening test “specifically identifies types HPV 16 and HPV 18 while concurrently detecting the rest of the high risk types (31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66 and 68).”

The cobas HPV Test was evaluated in the ATHENA trial, which studied more than 47,000 U.S. women 21 years old and older undergoing routine cervical cancer screening. Results from the ATHENA trial demonstrated that 1 in 10 women, age 30 and older, who tested positive for HPV 16 and/or 18, actually had cervical pre-cancer even though they showed normal results with the Pap test.

In March 2003, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the Hybrid Capture 2 test manufactured by Qiagen/Digene, which is a "hybrid-capture" test as an adjunct to Pap testing. The test may be performed during a routine Pap smear. It detects the DNA of 13 "high-risk" HPV types that most commonly affect the cervix, it does not determine the specific HPV types. Hybrid Capture 2 is the most widely studied commercially available HPV assay and the majority of the evidence for HPV primary testing in population-based screening programs is based on the Hybrid Capture 2 assay.

The recent outcomes in the identification of molecular pathways involved in cervical cancer provide helpful information about novel bio- or oncogenic markers that allow monitoring of these essential molecular events in cytological smears, histological, or cytological specimens. These bio- or onco- markers are likely to improve the detection of lesions that have a high risk of progression in both primary screening and triage settings. E6 and E7 mRNA detection PreTect HPV-Proofer (HPV OncoTect) or p16 cell-cycle protein levels are examples of these new molecular markers. According to published results, these markers, which are highly sensitive and specific, allow to identify cells going through malignant transformation.

In October 2011 the US Food and Drug Administration approved the Aptima HPV Assay test for RNA created when and if any HPV strains start creating cancers (see virology).

The vulva/vagina has been sampled with Dacron swabs and shows more HPV than the cervix. Among women who were HPV positive in either place, 90% were positive in the vulvovaginal region, 46% in the cervix.

Improvement usually parallels that of the cancer, whether surgical or chemotherapeutic. Generalization of the associated visceral malignancy may worsen the eruption.

Identifying and treatment the underlying malignancy constitutes an uptime approach. Topical 5-fluorouracil may occasionally be help, as may oral retinoids, topical steroids, vitamin A acid, urea, salicylic acid, podophyllotoxin, and cryodestruction employing liquid.

Patients are usually managed by a multidisciplinary team including surgeons, gynecologists, and dermatologists because of the complex nature of this disorder. Follow-up for the increased risk of breast cancer risk includes monthly breast self-examination, annual breast examination, and mammography at age 30 or five years earlier than the youngest age of breast cancer in the family. The magnitude of the risk of breast cancer justifies routine screening with breast MRI as per published guidelines.

Oral florid papillomatosis is a condition characterized by a white mass resembling a cauliflower covering the tongue and extending onto other portions of the mucous membranes. This is a type of verrucous carcinoma.

Diagnostic criteria have evolved over the years; the most recent is the Cleveland Clinic scoring system in 2011 derived from 3,042 probands. For an individual patient, these features may be evaluated by the Cleveland Clinic web calculator to derive an individual probability of a relevant gene mutation.

Papillomatosis cutis carcinoides (also known as "Gottron's carcinoid papillomatosis" and "Papillomatosis cutis carcinoides of Gottron–Eisenlohr") is a cutaneous condition characterized by verrucous skin lesions, and is due to an HPV infection of the skin.

Papillomatosis is skin surface elevation caused by hyperplasia and enlargement of contiguous dermal papillae. These papillary projections of the epidermis form an undulating surface under microscopic examination.

There are no specific blood tests that can diagnose cholangiocarcinoma by themselves. Serum levels of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and CA19-9 are often elevated, but are not sensitive or specific enough to be used as a general screening tool. However, they may be useful in conjunction with imaging methods in supporting a suspected diagnosis of cholangiocarcinoma.

Although there are at least three staging systems for cholangiocarcinoma (e.g. those of Bismuth, Blumgart, and the American Joint Committee on Cancer), none have been shown to be useful in predicting survival. The most important staging issue is whether the tumor can be surgically removed, or whether it is too advanced for surgical treatment to be successful. Often, this determination can only be made at the time of surgery.

General guidelines for operability include:

- Absence of lymph node or liver metastases

- Absence of involvement of the portal vein

- Absence of direct invasion of adjacent organs

- Absence of widespread metastatic disease

This disease is caused by problems in the circulatory system, so when it is presented, in the beginning it is important to follow several recommendations. The person needs to keep the legs elevated as much as possible to help the return of the blood. Whenever sitting down, the person needs to keep the legs on a foot stool. At night it is advisable to sleep with a pillow under the lower legs. In the evening, t is not unusual for legs to be swollen. The volume of the lower leg can increase to up to 100ml after a long working day or up to 200ml after a long-haul flight without moving.

In the example of the 41-year-old Japanese man the lesions were much improved by washing and topical use of corticosteroids for two months, also oral antibiotics like cephalexin are used if cellulitis is present. Moist exudative inflammation and moist ulcers respond to tepid wet compresses of Burow’s solution or just saline or water for 30 to 60 minutes several times a day. But in worse cases, edema that does not disappear spontaneously within a few hours or after a walk, is described as pathological, so it needs to have a special treatment. It is very important to say that Papillamitosis, bilateral and marked edema with few symptoms is mostly caused by the systemic circulation (heart, kidneys, liver).

Papillamitosis is associated, as has been mentioned before, with symptoms and/or clinical signs such as dilated superficial veins, varicose veins and changes in the skin. Edema and its complication Papillamitosis are only partially reversible and soon becomes hard, which is mainly confirmed on palpation. All skin structures are affected and this is characterized by the term. Lymphoedema may develop in many cases accompanied by acral thickening of the skin folds, hyperkeratosis and papillomatosis.

According the Fifth WHO Expert Committee on Filariasis , the most common method of classification of lymphedema is as follows: (The same classification method can be used for both primary and secondary lymphedema)

The International Society of Lymphology (ISL) Staging System is based solely on subjective symptoms, making it prone to substantial observer bias. Imaging modalities have been suggested as useful adjuncts to the ISL staging to clarify the diagnosis. The lymphedema expert Dr. Ming-Huei Cheng developed a Cheng’s Lymphedema Grading tool to assess the severity of extremity lymphedema based on objective limb measurements and providing appropriate options for management.

Many conditions affect the human integumentary system—the organ system covering the entire surface of the body and composed of skin, hair, nails, and related muscle and glands. The major function of this system is as a barrier against the external environment. The skin weighs an average of four kilograms, covers an area of two square meters, and is made of three distinct layers: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The two main types of human skin are: glabrous skin, the hairless skin on the palms and soles (also referred to as the "palmoplantar" surfaces), and hair-bearing skin. Within the latter type, the hairs occur in structures called pilosebaceous units, each with hair follicle, sebaceous gland, and associated arrector pili muscle. In the embryo, the epidermis, hair, and glands form from the ectoderm, which is chemically influenced by the underlying mesoderm that forms the dermis and subcutaneous tissues.

The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin, a squamous epithelium with several strata: the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Nourishment is provided to these layers by diffusion from the dermis, since the epidermis is without direct blood supply. The epidermis contains four cell types: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Of these, keratinocytes are the major component, constituting roughly 95 percent of the epidermis. This stratified squamous epithelium is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale, in which differentiating cells slowly displace outwards through the stratum spinosum to the stratum corneum, where cells are continually shed from the surface. In normal skin, the rate of production equals the rate of loss; about two weeks are needed for a cell to migrate from the basal cell layer to the top of the granular cell layer, and an additional two weeks to cross the stratum corneum.

The dermis is the layer of skin between the epidermis and subcutaneous tissue, and comprises two sections, the papillary dermis and the reticular dermis. The superficial papillary dermis with the overlying rete ridges of the epidermis, between which the two layers interact through the basement membrane zone. Structural components of the dermis are collagen, elastic fibers, and ground substance. Within these components are the pilosebaceous units, arrector pili muscles, and the eccrine and apocrine glands. The dermis contains two vascular networks that run parallel to the skin surface—one superficial and one deep plexus—which are connected by vertical communicating vessels. The function of blood vessels within the dermis is fourfold: to supply nutrition, to regulate temperature, to modulate inflammation, and to participate in wound healing.

The subcutaneous tissue is a layer of fat between the dermis and underlying fascia. This tissue may be further divided into two components, the actual fatty layer, or panniculus adiposus, and a deeper vestigial layer of muscle, the panniculus carnosus. The main cellular component of this tissue is the adipocyte, or fat cell. The structure of this tissue is composed of septal (i.e. linear strands) and lobular compartments, which differ in microscopic appearance. Functionally, the subcutaneous fat insulates the body, absorbs trauma, and serves as a reserve energy source.

Conditions of the human integumentary system constitute a broad spectrum of diseases, also known as dermatoses, as well as many nonpathologic states (like, in certain circumstances, melanonychia and racquet nails). While only a small number of skin diseases account for most visits to the physician, thousands of skin conditions have been described. Classification of these conditions often presents many nosological challenges, since underlying etiologies and pathogenetics are often not known. Therefore, most current textbooks present a classification based on location (for example, conditions of the mucous membrane), morphology (chronic blistering conditions), etiology (skin conditions resulting from physical factors), and so on. Clinically, the diagnosis of any particular skin condition is made by gathering pertinent information regarding the presenting skin lesion(s), including the location (such as arms, head, legs), symptoms (pruritus, pain), duration (acute or chronic), arrangement (solitary, generalized, annular, linear), morphology (macules, papules, vesicles), and color (red, blue, brown, black, white, yellow). Diagnosis of many conditions often also requires a skin biopsy which yields histologic information that can be correlated with the clinical presentation and any laboratory data.

When the lymphatic impairment becomes so great that the lymph fluid exceeds the lymphatic system's ability to transport it, an abnormal amount of protein-rich fluid collects in the tissues. Left untreated, this stagnant, protein-rich fluid causes tissue channels to increase in size and number, reducing oxygen availability. This interferes with wound healing and provides a rich culture medium for bacterial growth that can result in infections: cellulitis, lymphangitis, lymphadenitis and in severe cases, skin ulcers. It is vital for lymphedema patients to be aware of the symptoms of infection and to seek immediate treatment, since recurrent infections or cellulitis, in addition to their inherent danger, further damage the lymphatic system and set up a vicious circle.

In rare cases, lymphedema can lead to a form of cancer called lymphangiosarcoma, although the mechanism of carcinogenesis is not understood. Lymphedema-associated lymphangiosarcoma is called Stewart-Treves syndrome. Lymphangiosarcoma most frequently occurs in cases of long-standing lymphedema. The incidence of angiosarcoma is estimated to be 0.45% in patients living 5 years after radical mastectomy. Lymphedema is also associated with a low grade form of cancer called retiform hemangioendothelioma (a low grade angiosarcoma).

Since lymphedema is disfiguring, causing difficulties in daily living and can lead to lifestyle becoming severely limited, it may also result in psychological distress.

This condition is inherited as an autosomal dominant syndrome and characterized by palmoplantar keratoderma, oral precursor lesions particularly on the gums (leukoplakia) and a high lifetime risk of esophageal cancer (95% develop esophageal cancer by the age of 65). Relapsing cutaneous horns of the lips has been reported in this condition.

There are several types of this condition have been described – epidermolytic (Vörner type) and non-epidermolytic. Another classification divides these into an early onset type (type B) which occurs in the first year of life and is usually benign and a type A tylosis which occurs between the ages of 5 and 15 years and is strongly associated with esophageal cancer.

Cytoglobin gene expression in oesphageal biopsies is significantly reduced (70% reduction) in this condition. The mechanism of this change is not known.

RHBDF2 may also play a role in ovarian epithelial cancer.

Possible associations with gastric cancer and lung cancer have been suggested. Other possible associations include corneal defects, congenital pulmonary stenosis, total anomalous pulmonary venous connection deafness and optic atrophy.

Stasis Papillomatosis is similar to AGEP (Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis) from pustular psoriasis; criteria for histopathologic distinction have been proposed: papillary edema, vasculitis, exocytosis of eosinophils and single-cell necrosis of keratinocytes in AGEP and acanthosis and papillomatosis in pustular psoriasis.

An example that illustrates the difference between SP and Stasis Papillomatosis and the histology diagnosis is … “a markedly obese, 41-year-old Japanese man who had suffered from psoriasis vulgaris for several years visited hospital with elephantiasis-like swelling of his lower legs of three months' duration. His right lower leg showed marked papillomatosis with thick scales, and the left lower leg was eroded and papillomatous. Although direct lymphography of his lower extremities showed no abnormality, indirect lymphography revealed local lymphatic damage in the involved skin”. Histological examination showed hyperkeratosis, marked papillomatosis, proliferation of capillaries in the upper dermis, and lymphectasia in the lower dermis. It was suspected that obesity and the preceding psoriatic lesions caused local lymphatic disturbances, followed by the development of stasis papillomatosis.

LPR presents with non-specific symptoms and signs that make differential diagnosis difficult to achieve. Furthermore, symptoms of the disorder overlap greatly with symptoms of other disorders. Therefore, LPR is under-diagnosed and under-treated. As there are multiple potential etiologies for the respiratory and laryngeal symptoms of LPR, diagnosing LPR based on symptoms alone is unreliable. Laryngoscopic findings such as erythema, edema, laryngeal granulomas, and interarytenoid hypertrophy have been used to establish the diagnosis; however, these findings are nonspecific and have been described in the majority of asymptomatic subjects undergoing laryngoscopy. Response to acid-suppression therapy has been suggested as a diagnostic tool for confirming diagnosis of LPR, but studies have shown that the response to empirical trials of such therapy (as with proton-pump inhibitors) in these patients is often disappointing. Several studies have emphasized the importance of measuring proximal esophageal, or ideally pharyngeal acid exposure, in patients with clinical symptoms of LPR to document reflux as the cause of the symptoms.

Additionally, several potential biomarkers of LPR have been investigated. These include inflammatory cytokines, carbonic anyhydrase, E-cadherin and mucins; however, their direct implications in LPR are still being established. The presence of pepsin, an enzyme produced in the stomach, in the hypopharynx has also become an increasingly researched biomarker for LPR. Research suggests that the stomach enzyme pepsin plays a crucial role in the complex mechanism behind LPR.

Before a diagnosis can be made, a physician will need to record the patient’s medical history and ask for details about the presenting symptoms. Questionnaires such as the Reflux Symptom Index (RSI), Quality-of-Life Index (QLI) for LPR, Glottal Closure/Function Index (GCI) and Voice Handicap Index (VHI) can be administered to gain information about the patient's medical history as well as their symptomatology. A physical examination will then need to be performed with particular concentration around the head and neck. A scope with a specialized camera lens made of fiber optic strands is gently fed down the throat and feeds back images to a monitor. This provides a clear view of the throat and larynx. Signs of LPR include redness, swelling, and obvious irritation. Other, more invasive tests, such as fibre-optic transnasal laryngoscopy, 24-hour ambulatory dual probe pHmetry, pharyngeal pHmetry, transnasal esophagoscopy (TNE) and biopsy may be used. A noninvasive test for diagnosis of LPR is the collection of refluxate where the refluxed material is collected and analyzed. Another noninvasive diagnostic test that can be used is an empirical trial of proton-pump inhibitor therapy; however, this test is mostly successful in diagnosing GERD.

There is no agreed-upon assessment technique to identify LPR in children. Of the debated diagnostic tools, multichannel intraluminal impedance with pH monitoring (MII-pH) is used as it recognizes both acid and non-acid reflux. A more common technique that is used is 24-hour dual probe pH monitoring. Both of these tools are expensive and are therefore not widely used.

Tracheobronchopathia osteochondroplastica (TO) is a rare benign disease of unknown cause, in which multiple cartilaginous or bony submucosal nodules project into the trachea and proximal bronchi. The nodules usually spare the posterior wall of the airway because they are of cartilaginous origin, while the posterior wall of the airway is membranous (does not contain cartilage). This is as opposed to tracheobronchial amyloidosis, which does not spare the posterior wall.

It usually occurs in men around their fifth decade of life, as opposed to tracheobronchial papillomatosis due to HPV infection, which usually occurs in younger patients. TO can cause airway obstruction, bleeding and chronic cough. Treatment involves the use of bronchodilators, and physical dilatation by bronchoscopy. The patients are also more prone to post-obstructive pneumonia and chronic lung infection in severe cases.

The differential of TO includes amyloidosis, which is typically circumferential, papillomatosis, though this usually occurs in younger patients and can cause lung cavitation when disseminated, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, though this is circumferential as well and often involves distal lung cavitation as well. Relapsing polychondritis can also spare the posterior wall, though it is not typically nodular in appearance.

Confluent and reticulated papillomatosis of Gougerot and Carteaud (also known as "Confluent and reticulated papillomatosis," "CRP", "CARP", "Familial cutaneous papillomatosis," and "Familial occurrence of confluent and reticulated papillomatosis") is an uncommon but distinctive acquired ichthyosiform dermatosis characterized by persistent dark, scaly, papules and plaques that tend to be localized predominantly on the central trunk.

Henri Gougerot and Alexandre Carteaud originally described the condition in 1927. The cause remains unknown, but the observation that the condition may clear with Minocycline turned attention to an infectious agent. "Actinomycete Dietzia" strain X was isolated from one individual. Other antibiotics found useful include azithromycin, fusidic acid, clarithromycin, erythromycin, tetracycline and cefdinir.