The diagnosis of hemolytic anemia can be suspected on the basis of a constellation of symptoms and is largely based on the presence of anemia, an increased proportion of immature red cells (reticulocytes) and a decrease in the level of haptoglobin, a protein that binds free hemoglobin. Examination of a peripheral blood smear and some other laboratory studies can contribute to the diagnosis. Symptoms of hemolytic anemia include those that can occur in all anemias as well as the specific consequences of hemolysis. All anemias can cause fatigue, shortness of breath, decreased ability to exercise when severe. Symptoms specifically related to hemolysis include jaundice and dark colored urine due to the presence of hemoglobin (hemaglobinuria). When restricted to the morning hemaglobinuria may suggest paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria. Direct examination of blood under a microscope in a peripheral blood smear may demonstrate red blood cell fragments called schistocytes, red blood cells that look like spheres (spherocytes), and/or red blood cells missing small pieces (bite cells). An increased number of newly made red blood cells (reticulocytes) may also be a sign of bone marrow compensation for anemia. Laboratory studies commonly used to investigate hemolytic anemia include blood tests for breakdown products of red blood cells, bilirubin and lactate dehydrogenase, a test for the free hemoglobin binding protein haptoglobin, and the direct Coombs test to evaluate antibody binding to red blood cells suggesting autoimmune hemolytic anemia.

There are several groups where screening for PNH should be undertaken. These include patients with unexplained thrombosis who

are young, have thrombosis in an unusual site (e.g. intra-abdominal veins, cerebral veins, dermal veins), have any evidence of hemolysis (i.e. a raised LDH), or have a low red blood cell, white blood cell, or platelet count. Those who have a diagnosis of aplastic anemia should be screened annually.

Anemia is typically diagnosed on a complete blood count. Apart from reporting the number of red blood cells and the hemoglobin level, the automatic counters also measure the size of the red blood cells by flow cytometry, which is an important tool in distinguishing between the causes of anemia. Examination of a stained blood smear using a microscope can also be helpful, and it is sometimes a necessity in regions of the world where automated analysis is less accessible.

In modern counters, four parameters (RBC count, hemoglobin concentration, MCV and RDW) are measured, allowing others (hematocrit, MCH and MCHC) to be calculated, and compared to values adjusted for age and sex. Some counters estimate hematocrit from direct measurements.

Reticulocyte counts, and the "kinetic" approach to anemia, have become more common than in the past in the large medical centers of the United States and some other wealthy nations, in part because some automatic counters now have the capacity to include reticulocyte counts. A reticulocyte count is a quantitative measure of the bone marrow's production of new red blood cells. The reticulocyte production index is a calculation of the ratio between the level of anemia and the extent to which the reticulocyte count has risen in response. If the degree of anemia is significant, even a "normal" reticulocyte count actually may reflect an inadequate response.

If an automated count is not available, a reticulocyte count can be done manually following special staining of the blood film. In manual examination, activity of the bone marrow can also be gauged qualitatively by subtle changes in the numbers and the morphology of young RBCs by examination under a microscope. Newly formed RBCs are usually slightly larger than older RBCs and show polychromasia. Even where the source of blood loss is obvious, evaluation of erythropoiesis can help assess whether the bone marrow will be able to compensate for the loss, and at what rate.

When the cause is not obvious, clinicians use other tests, such as: ESR, ferritin, serum iron, transferrin, RBC folate level, serum vitamin B, hemoglobin electrophoresis, renal function tests (e.g. serum creatinine) although the tests will depend on the clinical hypothesis that is being investigated.

When the diagnosis remains difficult, a bone marrow examination allows direct examination of the precursors to red cells, although is rarely used as is painful, invasive and is hence reserved for cases where severe pathology needs to be determined or excluded.

The following findings may be present:

- Increased red cell breakdown

- Elevated serum bilirubin (unconjugated)

- Excess urinary urobilinogen

- Reduced plasma haptoglobin

- Raised serum lactic dehydrogenase (LDH)

- Hemosiderinuria

- Methemalbuminemia

- Spherocytosis

- Increased red cell production:

- Reticulocytosis

- Erythroid hyperplasia of the bone marrow

- Specific investigations

- Positive direct Coombs test

In some cases, the direct coombs will be negative but severe, even fatal HDN can occur. An indirect coombs needs to be run in cases of anti-C, anti-c, and anti-M. Anti-M also recommends antigen testing to rule out the presence of HDN.

There are several intervention options available in early, mid and late pregnancies.

In some cases, the direct coombs will be negative but severe, even fatal HDN can occur. An indirect coombs needs to be run in cases of anti-C, anti-c, and anti-M. Anti-M also recommends antigen testing to rule out the presence of HDN.

PNH is classified by the context under which it is diagnosed:

- "Classic PNH". Evidence of PNH in the absence of another bone marrow disorder.

- "PNH in the setting of another specified bone marrow disorder" such as aplastic anemia and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS).

- "Subclinical PNH". PNH abnormalities on flow cytometry without signs of hemolysis.

There are several intervention options available in early, mid and late pregnancies.

In the morphological approach, anemia is classified by the size of red blood cells; this is either done automatically or on microscopic examination of a peripheral blood smear. The size is reflected in the mean corpuscular volume (MCV). If the cells are smaller than normal (under 80 fl), the anemia is said to be microcytic; if they are normal size (80–100 fl), normocytic; and if they are larger than normal (over 100 fl), the anemia is classified as macrocytic. This scheme quickly exposes some of the most common causes of anemia; for instance, a microcytic anemia is often the result of iron deficiency. In clinical workup, the MCV will be one of the first pieces of information available, so even among clinicians who consider the "kinetic" approach more useful philosophically, morphology will remain an important element of classification and diagnosis.

Limitations of MCV include cases where the underlying cause is due to a combination of factors – such as iron deficiency (a cause of microcytosis) and vitamin B12 deficiency (a cause of macrocytosis) where the net result can be normocytic cells.

Diagnosis is made by a positive direct Coombs test, other lab tests, and clinical examination and history. The direct Coombs test looks for antibodies attached to the surface of red blood cells.

Laboratory findings include severe anemia, increased mean corpuscular volume (MCV, due to the presence of a large number of reticulocytes), and hyperbilirubinemia (from increased red cell destruction) that can be of the conjugated or unconjugated type.

Diagnosis is made by first ruling out other causes of hemolytic anemia, such as G6PD, thalassemia, sickle-cell disease, etc. Clinical history is also important to elucidate any underlying illness or medications that may have led to the disease.

Following this, laboratory investigations are carried out to determine the etiology of the disease. A positive DAT test has poor specificity for AIHA (having many differential diagnoses); so supplemental serological testing is required to ascertain the cause of the positive reaction. Hemolysis must also be demonstrated in the lab. The typical tests used for this are a complete blood count (CBC) with peripheral smear, bilirubin, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (in particular with isoenzyme 1), haptoglobin and urine hemoglobin.

Definitive therapy depends on the cause:

- Symptomatic treatment can be given by blood transfusion, if there is marked anemia. A positive Coombs test is a relative contraindication to transfuse the patient. In cold hemolytic anemia there is advantage in transfuse warmed blood

- In severe immune-related hemolytic anemia, steroid therapy is sometimes necessary.

- In steroid resistant cases, consideration can be given to rituximab or addition of an immunosuppressant ( azathioprine, cyclophosphamide)

- Association of methylprednisolone and intravenous immunoglobulin can control hemolysis in acute severe cases

- Sometimes splenectomy can be helpful where extravascular hemolysis, or hereditary spherocytosis, is predominant (i.e., most of the red blood cells are being removed by the spleen).

In some cases, the direct coombs will be negative but severe, even fatal HDN can occur. An indirect coombs needs to be run in cases of anti-C, anti-c, and anti-M. Anti-M also recommends antigen testing to rule out the presence of HDN.

There are several intervention options available in early, mid and late pregnancies.

The diagnosis of HDN is based on history and laboratory findings:

"Blood tests done on the newborn baby"

- Biochemistry tests for jaundice

- Peripheral blood morphology shows increased reticulocytes. Erythroblasts (also known as nucleated red blood cells) occur in moderate and severe disease.

- Positive direct Coombs test (might be negative after fetal interuterine blood transfusion)

"Blood tests done on the mother"

- Positive indirect Coombs test

In some cases, the direct coombs will be negative but severe, even fatal HDN can occur. An indirect coombs needs to be run in cases of anti-C, anti-c, and anti-M. Anti-M also recommends antigen testing to rule out the presence of HDN.

Experimental gene therapy exists to treat hereditary spherocytosis in lab mice; however, this treatment has not yet been tried on humans due to all of the risks involved in human gene therapy.

Physical examination may show an enlarged spleen. Tests that may be done include: Complete Blood Count (CBC), Hemoglobin electrophoresis, Peripheral blood smear, and Blood hemoglobin.

In a peripheral blood smear, the red blood cells will "appear" abnormally small and lack the central pale area that is present in normal red blood cells. These changes are also seen in non-hereditary spherocytosis, but they are typically more pronounced in hereditary spherocytosis. The number of immature red blood cells (reticulocyte count) will be elevated. An increase in the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration is also consistent with hereditary spherocytosis.

Other protein deficiencies cause hereditary elliptocytosis, pyropoikilocytosis or stomatocytosis.

In longstanding cases and in patients who have taken iron supplementation or received numerous blood transfusions, iron overload may be a significant problem. This is a potential cause of heart muscle damage and liver disease. Measuring iron stores is therefore considered part of the diagnostic approach to hereditary spherocytosis.

An osmotic fragility test can aid in the diagnosis. In this test, the spherocytes will rupture in liquid solutions less concentrated than the inside of the red blood cell. This is due to increased permeability of the spherocyte membrane to salt and water, which enters the concentrated inner environment of the RBC and leads to its rupture. Although the osmotic fragility test is widely considered the gold standard for diagnosing hereditary spherocytosis, it misses as many as 25% of cases. Flow cytometric analysis of eosin-5′-maleimide-labeled intact red blood cells and the acidified glycerol lysis test are two additional options to aid diagnosis.

The diagnosis is generally suspected when patients from certain ethnic groups (see epidemiology) develop anemia, jaundice and symptoms of hemolysis after challenges from any of the above causes, especially when there is a positive family history.

Generally, tests will include:

- Complete blood count and reticulocyte count; in active G6PD deficiency, Heinz bodies can be seen in red blood cells on a blood film;

- Liver enzymes (to exclude other causes of jaundice);

- Lactate dehydrogenase (elevated in hemolysis and a marker of hemolytic severity)

- Haptoglobin (decreased in hemolysis);

- A "direct antiglobulin test" (Coombs' test) – this should be negative, as hemolysis in G6PD is not immune-mediated;

When there are sufficient grounds to suspect G6PD, a direct test for G6PD is the "Beutler fluorescent spot test", which has largely replaced an older test (the Motulsky dye-decolouration test). Other possibilities are direct DNA testing and/or sequencing of the G6PD gene.

The "Beutler fluorescent spot test" is a rapid and inexpensive test that visually identifies NADPH produced by G6PD under ultraviolet light. When the blood spot does not fluoresce, the test is positive; it can be falsely negative in patients who are actively hemolysing. It can therefore only be done 2–3 weeks after a hemolytic episode.

When a macrophage in the spleen identifies a RBC with a Heinz body, it removes the precipitate and a small piece of the membrane, leading to characteristic "bite cells". However, if a large number of Heinz bodies are produced, as in the case of G6PD deficiency, some Heinz bodies will nonetheless be visible when viewing RBCs that have been stained with crystal violet. This easy and inexpensive test can lead to an initial presumption of G6PD deficiency, which can be confirmed with the other tests.

A hematologist-oncologist working in collaboration with a blood banker is helpful in complicated cases of cold agglutinin disease.

Careful planning and coordination with multiple personnel are needed if patients are to undergo a procedure during which their body temperature could fall.

Routine antenatal antibody screening blood tests (indirect Coombs test) do not screen for ABO HDN. If IgG anti-A or IgG anti-B antibodies are found in the pregnant woman's blood, they are not reported with the test results, because they do not correlate well with ABO HDN. Diagnosis is usually made by investigation of a newborn baby who has developed jaundice during the first week of life.

Testing

- Coombs - after birth baby will have a direct coombs test run to confirm antibodies attached to the infant’s red blood cells. This test is run from cord blood. In some cases, the direct coombs will be negative but severe, even fatal HDN can occur. An indirect coombs needs to be run in cases of anti-C, anti-c, and anti-M. Anti-M also recommends antigen testing to rule out the presence of HDN.

- Hgb - the infant’s hemoglobin should be tested from cord blood.

- Reticulocyte count - Reticulocytes are elevated when the infant is producing more blood to combat anemia. A rise in the retic count can mean that an infant may not need additional transfusions. Low retic is observed in infants treated with IUT and in those with HDN from anti-Kell

- Neutrophils - as Neutropenia is one of the complications of HDN, the neutrophil count should be checked.

- Thrombocytes - as thrombocytopenia is one of the complications of HDN, the thrombocyte count should be checked.

- Bilirubin should be tested from cord blood.

- Ferritin - because most infants affected by HDN have iron overload, a ferritin must be run before giving the infant any additional iron.

- Newborn Screening Tests - Transfusion with donor blood during pregnancy or shortly after birth can affect the results of the Newborn Screening Tests. It is recommended to wait and retest 10–12 months after last transfusion. In some cases, DNA testing from saliva can be used to rule out certain conditions.

Cold agglutinin disease may be managed successfully using protective measures (clothing) alone in most cases. Special protective clothing is sometimes necessary in extreme cases. Therapy is directed at serious symptoms and the underlying disorder, if any is found.

Keep in mind that the idiopathic variety of cold agglutinin disease is generally a benign disorder with prolonged survival and spontaneous exacerbations and remissions in the course of the disease. Acute post infectious syndromes usually resolve spontaneously.

Anemia is generally mild. Only patients who have serious symptoms related to anemia or have a Raynaud type syndrome that constitutes a threat to life or quality of life require active therapy. The presence of an associated malignancy requires specific therapy.

Cold agglutinin disease is so uncommon in children that no specific recommendations for therapy are available. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) was used successfully in an infant with IgA-associated autoimmune hemolytic anemia.