The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommend that all women 65 years of age or older be screened by bone densitometry. Additionally they recommend screening women with increased risk factors that puts them at risk equivalent to a 65‑year‑old. There is insufficient evidence to make recommendations about the intervals for repeated screening and the appropriate age to stop screening. In men the harm versus benefit of screening for osteoporosis is unknown. Prescrire states that the need to test for osteoporosis in those who have not had a previous bone fracture is unclear. The International Society for Clinical Densitometry, however, suggest BMD testing for men 70 or older, or those who are indicated for risk equal to that of a 70‑year‑old. A number of tools exist to help determine who is reasonable to test.

Even though more studies are necessary for an efficient evaluation of the role played by zinc in senile osteoporosis, doctors recommend a proper supplementation of dietary zinc.

Replacement estrogen has proved to be an efficient way to combat the loss of bone mass in women when such treatment is started in the menopausal stage of their lives. John R. Lee, a Harvard graduate who wrote a book on the subject, came to the conclusion that by adding supplementation with natural progesterone to an existing natural osteoporosis treatment program, bone density was increased every year by 3-5% until it stabilized at the bone density levels expected for a 35-year-old woman, this after studies in 100 women between 38 and 83 with an average of 62 years old.

Quantitative computed tomography differs from DXA in that it gives separate estimates of BMD for trabecular and cortical bone and reports precise volumetric mineral density in mg/cm rather than BMD's relative Z score. Among QCT's advantages: it can be performed at axial and peripheral sites, can be calculated from existing CT scans without a separate radiation dose, is sensitive to change over time, can analyze a region of any size or shape, excludes irrelevant tissue such as fat, muscle, and air, and does not require knowledge of the patient's subpopulation in order to create a clinical score (e.g. the Z-score of all females of a certain age). Among QCT's disadvantages: it requires a high radiation dose compared to DXA, CT scanners are large and expensive, and because its practice has been less standardized than BMD, its results are more operator-dependent. Peripheral QCT has been introduced to improve upon the limitations of DXA and QCT.

Quantitative ultrasound has many advantages in assessing osteoporosis. The modality is small, no ionizing radiation is involved, measurements can be made quickly and easily, and the cost of the device is low compared with DXA and QCT devices. The calcaneus is the most common skeletal site for quantitative ultrasound assessment because it has a high percentage of trabecular bone that is replaced more often than cortical bone, providing early evidence of metabolic change. Also, the calcaneus is fairly flat and parallel, reducing repositioning errors. The method can be applied to children, neonates, and preterm infants, just as well as to adults. Some ultrasound devices can be used on the tibia.

Diagnosis is made on the basis of history and a high index of suspicion. On examination there is tenderness to palpation on navicular head. Radiographs reveal typical changes of increased density and narrowing of the navicular bone

The deformities are managed surgically to preserve the function of the limb.

Most of the etiologic considerations regarding senile osteoporosis are not very clear for physicians yet. But based on the current evidence attached to clinical experimentation, it has been determined that the pathogenesis of the disease is clearly related to a deficiency of zinc. Such deficiency is known to lead to an increment of endogenous heparin, which is most likely caused by mast cell degranulation, and an increase in the bone resorption (calcium discharge in the bones) reaction of prostaglandin E2, which constrain the formation of more bone mass, making bones more fragile. These co-factors are shown to play an important role in the pathogenetic process attached to senile osteoporosis as they enhance the action of the parathyroid hormone.

The intake of calcium in elder people is quite low, and this problem is worsened by a reduced capability to ingest it. This, attached to a decrease in the absorption of vitamin D concerning metabolism, are also factors that contributes to a diagnosis of osteoporosis type II.

One person in every 100,000 is affected. Ollier disease is not normally diagnosed until toddler years because it is not very visible.

ADH, if found on a surgical (excisional) biopsy of a mammographic abnormality, does not require any further treatment, only mammographic follow-up.

If ADH is found on a core (needle) biopsy (a procedure which generally does not excise a suspicious mammographic abnormality), a surgical biopsy, i.e. a breast lumpectomy, to completely excise the abnormality and exclude breast cancer is the typical recommendation.

While the histopathologic features and molecular features of ADH are that of (low-grade) DCIS, its clinical behaviour, unlike low-grade DCIS, is substantially better; thus, the more aggressive treatment for DCIS is not justified. In oncology in general, it is observed that tumour size is often strongly predictive of the clinical behaviour and, thus, a number of cancers (e.g. adenocarcinoma of the lung, papillary renal cell carcinoma) are defined, in part, on the basis of a minimum size.

The major differential to consider in empty sella syndrome is intracranial hypertension, of both unknown and secondary causes, and an epidermoid cyst, which can mimic cerebrospinal fluid due to its low density on CT scans, although MRI can usually distinguish the latter diagnosis.

Scans of bones anywhere in the body can be done with X-rays, known as DEXA (dual X-ray absorptiometry). Scans can also be done with portable scanners using ultrasound, and portable X-ray machines can measure density in the heel. A study paid for by Merck found that the extent to which osteopenia was diagnosed varied from 28 to 45 percent, depending on the type of machine. Merck was active in promoting deployment of cheaper scanners to be used on extremities, so that they could be used more widely. However, the clinical utility of these scans compared to scans of core portions of the body is disputed.

The definitive diagnosis is by histologic analysis, i.e. and examination under the microscope.

Under the microscope, OKCs vaguely resemble keratinized squamous epithelium; however, they lack rete ridges and often have an artifactual separation from their basement membrane.

On a CT scan, The radiodensity of a keratocystic odontogenic tumour is about 30 Hounsfield units, which is about the same as ameloblastomas. Yet, ameloblastomas show more bone expansion and seldom show high density areas.

Biophosphonates are drugs that are used to prevent bone mass loss and are often used to treat osteolytic lesions. Zoledronic acid (Reclast) is a specific drug given to cancer patients to prevent the worsening of bone lesions and has been reported to have anti-tumor effects as well. Zoledronic acid has been clinically tested in conjunction with calcium and vitamin D to encourage bone health. Denosumab, a monoclonal antibody treatment RANKl inhibitor that targets the osteocyte apoptosis regualtory RANKL gene, is also prescribed to prevent bone metastases and bone lesions. Most biophosphonates are co-prescribed with disease-specific treatments, such as chemotherapy or radiation for cancer patients.

The diagnosis of ESS, done via examination (and test), may be linked to early onset of puberty, growth hormone deficiency or pituitary gland dysfunction(at an early age). Additionally there is:

Bone lesions in multiple myeloma patients may be treated with low-dose radiation therapy in order to reduce pain and other symptoms. Used in combination with immunochemotherapy, radiation therapy can be used to treat certain cancers when aimed at areas of bone lesion and softened bone.

The management of PASH is controversial. Excision may be indicated in enlarging masses or lesions with atypical features.

Treatment usually involves resting the affected foot, taking pain relievers and trying to avoid putting pressure on the foot. In acute cases, the patient is often fitted with a cast that stops below the knee. The cast is usually worn for 6 to 8 weeks. After the cast is taken off, some patients are prescribed arch support for about 6 months. Also, moderate exercise is often beneficial, and physical therapy may help as well.

Prognosis for children with this disease is very good. It may persist for some time, but most cases are resolved within two years of the initial diagnosis. Although in most cases no permanent damage is done, some will have lasting damage to the foot. Also, later in life, Kohler's disease can spread to the hips.

Radiologically

- Odontogenic Myxoma

- Ameloblastoma

- Central Giant Cell Granuloma

- Adenomatoid odontogenic tumor

Histologically

- Orthokeratocyst

- Radicular cyst (particularly if the OKC is very inflamed)

- Unicystic ameloblastoma

The diagnosis of PASH is by biopsy.

The important differential diagnosis is angiosarcoma, from which it was first differentiated in 1986.

Recovery from renal osteodystrophy has been observed following kidney transplantation. Renal osteodystrophy is a chronic condition with a conventional hemodialysis schedule. Nevertheless, it is important to consider that the broader concept of CKD-MBD, which includes renal osteodystrophy, is not only associated with bone disease and increased risk of fractures but also with cardiovascular calcification, poor quality of life and increased morbidity and mortality in CKD patients (the so-called bone-vascular axis). Actually, bone may now be considered a new endocrine organ at the heart of CKD-MBD.

The only effective line of treatment for malignant infantile osteopetrosis is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. It has been shown to provide long-term disease-free periods for a significant percentage of those treated; can impact both hematologic and skeletal abnormalities; and has been used successfully to reverse the associated skeletal abnormalities.

Radiographs of at least one case with malignant infantile osteopetrosis have demonstrated bone remodeling and recanalization of medullar canals following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. This favorable radiographic response could be expected within one year following the procedure - nevertheless, primary graft failure can prove fatal.

Breast cancer screening refers to testing otherwise-healthy women for breast cancer in an attempt to achieve an earlier diagnosis under the assumption that early detection will improve outcomes. A number of screening tests have been employed including clinical and self breast exams, mammography, genetic screening, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.

A clinical or self breast exam involves feeling the breast for lumps or other abnormalities. Clinical breast exams are performed by health care providers, while self-breast exams are performed by the person themselves. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of either type of breast exam, as by the time a lump is large enough to be found it is likely to have been growing for several years and thus soon be large enough to be found without an exam. Mammographic screening for breast cancer uses X-rays to examine the breast for any uncharacteristic masses or lumps. During a screening, the breast is compressed and a technician takes photos from multiple angles. A general mammogram takes photos of the entire breast, while a diagnostic mammogram focuses on a specific lump or area of concern.

A number of national bodies recommend breast cancer screening. For the average woman, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends mammography every two years in women between the ages of 50 and 74, the Council of Europe recommends mammography between 50 and 69 with most programs using a 2-year frequency, and in Canada screening is recommended between the ages of 50 and 74 at a frequency of 2 to 3 years. These task force reports point out that in addition to unnecessary surgery and anxiety, the risks of more frequent mammograms include a small but significant increase in breast cancer induced by radiation.

The Cochrane collaboration (2013) states that the best quality evidence neither demonstrates a reduction in cancer specific, nor a reduction in all cause mortality from screening mammography. When less rigorous trials are added to the analysis there is a reduction in mortality due to breast cancer of 0.05% (a decrease of 1 in 2000 deaths from breast cancer over 10 years or a relative decrease of 15% from breast cancer). Screening over 10 years results in a 30% increase in rates of over-diagnosis and over-treatment (3 to 14 per 1000) and more than half will have at least one falsely positive test. This has resulted in the view that it is not clear whether mammography screening does more good or harm. Cochrane states that, due to recent improvements in breast cancer treatment, and the risks of false positives from breast cancer screening leading to unnecessary treatment, "it therefore no longer seems beneficial to attend for breast cancer screening" at any age. Whether MRI as a screening method has greater harms or benefits when compared to standard mammography is not known.

Definitive diagnosis requires LCAT gene analysis for mutation and functional activity. However, numerous lab tests may help with making a diagnosis such as complete blood count (CBC), urinalysis, blood chemistries, lipid panels, and plasma LCAT activity.

Fish-eye disease is characterized by abnormalities like visual impairment, plaques of fatty material, and dense opacification.

The treatment of osteopenia is controversial. Currently, candidates for therapy include those at the highest risk of osteoporotic bone fracture based on bone mineral density and clinical risk factors. As of 2008, recommendations from the US National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF) are based on risk assessments from the World Health Organization (WHO) Fracture Risk Assessment Tool (FRAX). According to these recommendations, consideration of therapy should be made for postmenopausal women, and men older than 50 years of age, if any one of the following is present:

1. Prior hip or vertebral fracture

2. T-score of −2.5 at the femoral neck or spine, excluding secondary causes

3. T-score between −1.0 and −2.5 at the femoral neck or spine "and" a 10-year probability of hip fracture ≥3% "or" a 10-year probability of major osteoporotic fracture ≥20%

4. Clinicians' judgment in combination with patient preferences indicate treatment for people with 10-year fracture probabilities above or below these levels.

When medical therapy is pursued, treatment includes medications with a range of actions. Commonly used drugs are bisphosphonates including alendronate, risedronate, and ibandronate; selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) such as raloxifene; estrogen; calcitonin; and teriparatide.

Studies have shown that the actual benefits of these drugs may be marginal. Approximately 270 women with osteopenia might need to be treated with drugs for three years so that one of them could avoid a single vertebral fracture.

Strontium ranelate has been approved in 27 European countries, having been found to build bone both by slowing the work of osteoclasts and by stimulating osteoblasts. On January 10, 2014, the European Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee recommended that strontium ranelate, marketed as Protelos or Protos by Servier, should be treated with caution when used to treat osteoporosis, as randomised trials have shown an increased risk of non-fatal myocardial infarction in patients with ischemic heart disease or uncontrolled hypertension patients. There is no increased risk of non-fatal myocardial infarction in healthy patients.

Other (natural) forms of available strontium include strontium lactate, strontium gluconate, strontium carbonate, and strontium citrate. Food sources include spices (especially basil), seafood, whole grains, root and leafy vegetables, and legumes. Strontium should not be taken with calcium supplements, to improve absorption.

The differential diagnosis of malignant infantile osteopetrosis includes other genetic skeletal dysplasias that cause osteosclerosis. They are collectively known as osteosclerosing dysplasias. The differential diagnosis of genetic osteosclerosing dysplasias including infantile osteopetrosis has been tabulated and illustrated in literature citations.

- Neuropathic infantile osteopetrosis

- Infantile osteopetrosis with renal tubular acidosis

- Infantile osteopetrosis with immunodeficiency

- IO with leukocyte adhesion deficiency syndrome (LAD-III)

- Intermediate osteopetrosis

- Autosomal dominant osteopetrosis (Albers-Schonberg)

- Pyknodysostosis (osteopetrosis acro-osteolytica)

- Osteopoikilosis (Buschke–Ollendorff syndrome)

- Osteopathia striata with cranial sclerosis

- Mixed sclerosing bone dysplasia

- Progressive diaphyseal dysplasia (Camurati–Engelmann disease)

- SOST-related sclerosing bone dysplasias