The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends HIV testing for all pregnant women as a part of routine prenatal care. The test is usually performed in the first trimester of pregnancy with other routine laboratory tests. HIV testing is recommended because HIV-infected women who do not receive testing are more likely to transmit the infection to their children.

HIV testing may be offered to pregnant women on an "opt-in" or an "opt-out" basis. In the "opt-in" model, women are counseled on HIV testing and elect to receive the test by signing a consent form. In the "opt-out" model, the HIV test is automatically performed with other routine prenatal tests. If a woman does not want to be tested for HIV, she must specifically refuse the test and sign a form declining testing. The CDC recommends "opt-out" testing for all pregnant women because it improves disease detection and treatment and helps reduce transmission to children.

If a woman chooses to decline testing, she will not receive the test. However, she will continue to receive HIV counseling throughout the pregnancy so that she may be as informed as possible about the disease and its impact. She will be offered HIV testing at all stages of her pregnancy in case she changes her mind.

HIV testing begins with a screening test. The most common screening test is the rapid HIV antibody test which tests for HIV antibodies in blood, urine, or oral fluid. HIV antibodies are only produced if an individual is infected with the disease. Therefore, presence of the antibodies is indicative of an HIV infection. Sometimes, however, a person may be infected with HIV but the body has not produced enough antibodies to be detected by the test. If a woman has risk factors for HIV infection but tests negative on the initial screening test, she should be retested in 3 months to confirm that she does not have HIV. Another screening test that is more specific is the HIV antigen/antibody test. This is a newer blood test that can detect HIV infection quicker than the antibody test because it detects both virus particles and antibodies in the blood.

Any woman who has a positive HIV screening test must receive follow-up testing to confirm the diagnosis. The follow-up test can differentiate HIV-1 from HIV-2 and is a more specific antibody test. It may also detect the virus directly in the bloodstream.

Blood for blood transfusion is screened for many bloodborne diseases. Additionally, a technique that uses a combination of riboflavin and UV light to inhibit the replication of these pathogens by altering their nucleic acids can be used to treat blood components prior to their transfusion, and can reduce the risk of disease transmission.

A technology using the synthetic psoralen, amotosalen HCl, and UVA light (320–400 nm) has been implemented in European blood centers for the treatment of platelet and plasma components to prevent transmission of bloodborne diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and protozoa.

Exposure to antiretroviral treatments has led to the evolution of HIV in response to selection pressure that eliminates strains of HIV that do not express resistance mechanisms. Drug resistance occurs in all antiretroviral treatments if patients are non-adherent, meaning that they do not take their medication regimens as prescribed. Lack of adherence may result from unreliable access to the medication, due to prohibitive cost or inadequate supply.

Current medical and scientific opinion is mixed on the most effective treatment methods, but is focused on drug cocktails and the importance of first-line regimens . The World Health Organization advocates a public-health approach to HIV treatment in order to make treatment uniform and available to patients around the world. As of July 2017, the WHO is implementing the Global Action Plan on HIV drug resistance 2017-2021. It is a 5-year initiative intended to help countries around the world manage HIV drug resistance.

Among treatment methods, the World Health Organization acknowledges the importance of successful first-line treatments. First-line treatments are known to affect the virus’ future response to other treatments, making the effectiveness of first-line treatments an issue of vital importance. The most successful treatments are combinations of three drugs used simultaneously, as this greatly reduces the probability of the virus developing resistance.

According to current recommendations by the WHO, US CDC and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), all individuals with HIV should begin ART. The recommendation is stronger under the following conditions:

- CD4 count below 350 cells/mm

- High viral load (>100,000 copies/ml)

- Progression of HIV to AIDS

- Development of HIV-related infections and illnesses

- Pregnancy

Women are encouraged to begin treatment as soon as they are diagnosed with HIV. If they are diagnosed prior to pregnancy, they should continue with ART during the pregnancy. If the diagnosis of HIV is made during the pregnancy, ART should be initiated immediately.

Successful diagnosis of XDR-TB depends on the patient’s access to quality health-care services. If TB bacteria are found in the sputum, the diagnosis of TB can be made in a day or two, but this finding will not be able to distinguish between drug-susceptible and drug-resistant TB. To evaluate drug susceptibility, the bacteria need to be cultivated and tested in a suitable laboratory. Final diagnosis in this way for TB, and especially for XDR-TB, may take from 6 to 16 weeks. To reduce the time needed for diagnosis, new tools for rapid TB diagnosis are urgently needed.

The original method used to test for MDR-TB and XDR-TB was the Drug Susceptibility Testing (DST). DST is capable of determining how well four primary antitubercular drugs inhibit the growth of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. The four primary antitubercular drugs are Isoniazid, Rifampin, Ethambutol and Pyrazinamide. Drug Susceptibility testing is done by making a Lowenstein-Jensen medium plate and spreading the bacteria on the plate. Disks containing one of the four primary drugs are added to the plate. After weeks of allowing the bacteria to grow the plate is checked for clear areas around the disk. If there is a clear area, the drug has killed the bacteria and most likely the bacteria is not resistant to that drug.

As "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" evolved new strains of resistant bacteria were being found such as XDR-TB. The problem was that primary DST was not suitable for testing bacteria strains that were extensively drug resistant. This problem was starting to be fixed when drug susceptibility tests started including not just the four primary drugs, but secondary drugs. This secondary test is known as Bactec MGIT 960 System. Although Bactec MGIT 960 System was accurate it was still slow at determining the level of resistance.

Diagnosis of MDR and XDR-TB in children is challenging. With an increasing number of cases being reported worldwide there is a great need for better diagnostic tools available for pediatric patients.

In recent years drug resistant tuberculosis testing has shown a lot of progress. Some studies have found an in-house assay that could rapidly detect resistance to drugs involved in the definition of XDR-TB directly from smear-positive specimens. The assay is called Reverse Line Blot Hybridization Assay also known as RLBH. The study showed that the results of RLBH were as accurate as other drug susceptibility tests, but at the same time didn`t take weeks to get results. RLBH testing only took 3 days to determine how resistant the strain of bacteria was.

The current research has shown progress in the testing of drug resistance. A recent study found that a research technique known as direct nitrate reductase assay (D-NRA) showed efficient accuracy for the rapid and simultaneous detection of resistance to isoniazid (INH), rifampicin (RIF), kanamycin (KAN) and ofloxacin (OFL). D-NRA results were obtained in 16.9 days, comparably less than other drug susceptibility testing. At the same time the study mentioned how D-NRA is a low-cost technology, easy to set up in clinical laboratories and suitable to be used for DST of M. tuberculosis in all smear-positive samples.

Prevalence measures include everyone living with HIV and AIDS, and present a delayed representation of the epidemic by aggregating the HIV infections of many years. Incidence, in contrast, measures the number of new infections, usually over the previous year. There is no practical, reliable way to assess incidence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Prevalence in 15- to 24-year-old pregnant women attending antenatal clinics is sometimes used as an approximation. The test done to measure prevalence is a serosurvey in which blood is tested for the presence of HIV.

Health units that conduct serosurveys rarely operate in remote rural communities, and the data collected also does not measure people who seek alternate healthcare. Extrapolating national data from antenatal surveys relies on assumptions which may not hold across all regions and at different stages in an epidemic.

Recent national population or household-based surveys collecting data from both sexes, pregnant and non-pregnant women, and rural and urban areas, have adjusted the recorded national prevalence levels for several countries in Africa and elsewhere. These, too, are not perfect: people may not participate in household surveys because they fear they may be HIV positive and do not want to know their test results. Household surveys also exclude migrant labourers, who are a high risk group.

Thus, there may be significant disparities between official figures and actual HIV prevalence in some countries.

A minority of scientists claim that as many as 40 percent of HIV infections in African adults may be caused by unsafe medical practices rather than by sexual activity. The World Health Organization states that about 2.5 percent of HIV infections in Sub-Saharan Africa are caused by unsafe medical injection practices and the "overwhelming majority" by unprotected sex.

HIV develops resistance when it evades the effects of these treatments.

HIV drug resistance reduces the possible HIV medications a person can take due to cross resistance. In cross resistance, an entire medication class is considered ineffective in lowering a patient's HIV viral load because all the drugs in a given HIV class share the same mechanism of action. Therefore, development of resistance to one medication in a class precludes the use of all other medications in the same class. A blood test should be done to determine which drugs may be effective prior to initiation of treatment or during treatment to ensure resistance has not developed.

In 2004, one study estimated the percentage of the American HIV positive population with some form of drug resistance to be 76.3%. Certain intrinsic features of HIV facilitate its widespread resistance, most importantly its extremely high mutation rate.

In their 2017 HIV Drug Resistance Report, the World Health Organization conducted surveys in 14 countries to estimate the prevalence of resistance to HIV medications. One subgroup included only HIV-positive patients who have just initiated antiretroviral therapy in order to assess the prevalence of HIV drug resistance in treatment-naive patients, deemed "pretreatment drug resistance." Resistance to NNRTIs in this patient population ranged from 2.7% (in Myanmar) to 15.9% (in Uganda). Resistance to NRTIs ranged from 0.3% (in Namibia) to 6.8% (in Nicaragua). Resistance to protease inhibitors ranged from 0.3% (in Carmeroon and Myanmar) to 2.6% (in Mexico). Resistance to NNRTI + NRTI combination therapy ranged from 0.2% (in Myanmar) to 4.6% (in Uganda).

The virus that causes AIDS is the best known of the transfusion-transmitted infections because of high-profile cases such as Ryan White, a haemophiliac who was infected through factor VIII, a blood-derived medicine used to treat the disease. Another person who died of medically acquired HIV/AIDS was Damon Courtenay, who died in 1991 due to a bad batch of factor VIII.

The standard test for HIV is an enzyme immunoassay test that reacts with antibodies to the virus. This test has a window period where a person will be infected but not yet have an immune response. Other tests are used to look for donors during this period, specifically the p24 antigen test and nucleic acid testing.

In addition to the general risk criteria for viruses, blood donors are sometimes excluded if they have lived in certain parts of Africa where subtypes of HIV that are not reliably detected on some tests are found, specifically HIV group O. People who have been in prison for extended periods are also excluded for HIV risk.

Needle exchange programs (NEPs) are an attempt to reduce the spread of bloodborne diseases between intravenous drug users. They often also provide addiction counseling services, infectious disease testing, and in some cases mental health care and/or other case management. NEPs acquired their name as they were initially places where intravenous (IV) illicit substance users were provided with clean, unused needles in exchange for their used needles. This allows for proper disposal of the needles. Empirical studies confirm the benefits of NEPs. NEPs can affect behaviors that result in the transmission of HIV. These behaviors include decreased sharing of used syringes, which reduces contaminated syringes from circulation and replaces them with sterile ones, among other risk reductions.

A study conducted on 452 patients revealed that the genotype responsible for higher IL-10 expression makes HIV infected people more susceptible to tuberculosis infection. Another study on HIV-TB co-infected patients also concluded that higher level of IL-10 and IL-22 makes TB patient more susceptible to Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). It is also seen that HIV co-infection with tuberculosis also reduces concentration of immunopathogenic matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) leading to reduced inflammatory immunopathology.

Most people infected with HIV develop specific antibodies (i.e. seroconvert) within three to twelve weeks of the initial infection. Diagnosis of primary HIV before seroconversion is done by measuring HIV-RNA or p24 antigen. Positive results obtained by antibody or PCR testing are confirmed either by a different antibody or by PCR.

Antibody tests in children younger than 18 months are typically inaccurate due to the continued presence of maternal antibodies. Thus HIV infection can only be diagnosed by PCR testing for HIV RNA or DNA, or via testing for the p24 antigen. Much of the world lacks access to reliable PCR testing and many places simply wait until either symptoms develop or the child is old enough for accurate antibody testing. In sub-Saharan Africa as of 2007–2009 between 30 and 70% of the population were aware of their HIV status. In 2009, between 3.6 and 42% of men and women in Sub-Saharan countries were tested which represented a significant increase compared to previous years.

When HIV-negative children take isoniazid after they have been exposed to tuberculosis, their risk to contract tuberculosis is reduced. A Cochrane review investigated whether giving isoniazid to HIV-positive children can help to prevent this vulnerable group from getting tuberculosis. They included three trials conducted in South Africa and Botswana and found that isoniazid given to all children diagnosed with HIV may reduce the risk of active tuberculosis and death in children who are not on antiretroviral treatment. For children taking antiretroviral medication, no clear benefit was detected.

HIV/AIDS is diagnosed via laboratory testing and then staged based on the presence of certain signs or symptoms. HIV screening is recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force for all people 15 years to 65 years of age including all pregnant women. Additionally, testing is recommended for those at high risk, which includes anyone diagnosed with a sexually transmitted illness. In many areas of the world, a third of HIV carriers only discover they are infected at an advanced stage of the disease when AIDS or severe immunodeficiency has become apparent.

Countries aim to prevent XDR-TB by ensuring that the work of their national TB control programmes, and of all practitioners working with people with TB, is carried out according to the International Standards for TB Care. These emphasize providing proper diagnosis and treatment to all TB patients, including those with drug-resistant TB; assuring regular, timely supplies of all anti-TB drugs; proper management of anti-TB drugs and providing support to patients to maximize adherence to prescribed regimens; caring for XDR-TB cases in a centre with proper ventilation, and minimizing contact with other patients, particularly those with HIV, especially in the early stages before treatment has had a chance to reduce the infectiousness. Also an effective disease control infrastructure is necessary for the prevention of XDR tuberculosis. Increased funding for research, and strengthened laboratory facilities are much required. Immediate detection through drug susceptibility testing's are vital, when trying to stop the spread of XDR tuberculosis.

Many people living with HIV in low and middle income countries who need antiretroviral therapy are unable to access or remain in care. This is often because of the time and cost required to travel to health centres as well as an inadequate number of trained staff such as medical doctors and specialists to provide treatment. One approach to improve access to HIV care is to provide antiretroviral therapy close to people’s homes. A systematic review found that when antiretroviral treatment was initiated at the hospital but followed up at a health centre closer to home, fewer patients died or were lost to follow up. The research also did not detect a difference in the numbers of patients who died or were lost to follow up when they received maintenance treatment in the community rather than in a health centre or hospital.

Many of these viruses are controlled through laboratory screening tests. These fall into three basic varieties: antibody tests, nucleic acid tests (NAT), and surrogate tests. Antibody tests look for the immune system's response to the infection. Nucleic acid tests look for the genetic material of the virus itself. The third variety are tests that are not specific to the disease but look for other related conditions.

High risk activities for transfusion transmitted infections vary, and the amount of caution used for screening donors varies based on how dangerous the disease is. Most of the viral diseases are spread by either sexual contact or by contact with blood, usually either drug use, accidental needle injuries among health care workers, unsterilized tattoo and body piercing equipment, or through a blood transfusion or transplant. Other vectors exist.

Whether a donor is considered to be at "too high" of a risk for a disease to be allowed to donate is sometimes controversial, especially for sexual contact. High risk sexual activity is defined in many different ways, but usually includes:

- Sex in exchange for money or drugs.

- Men who have sex with men, the most controversial criterion.

- A recent history of sexually transmitted disease.

- Sex with a person who has had a positive test or was at high risk for a disease that can be spread in blood transfusions.

Specific age groups, persons who participate in risky sexual behavior, or those have certain health conditions may require screening. The CDC recommends that sexually active women under the age of 25 and those over 25 at risk should be screened for chlamydia and gonorrhea yearly. Appropriate times for screening are during regular pelvic examinations and preconception evaluations. Nucleic acid amplification tests are the recommended method of diagnosis for gonorrhea and chlamydia. This can be done on either urine in both men and women, vaginal or cervical swabs in women, or urethral swabs in men. Screening can be performed:

- to assess the presence of infection and prevent tubal infertility in women

- during the initial evaluation before infertility treatment

- to identify HIV infection

- for men who have sex with men

- for those who may have been exposed to hepatitis C

- for HCV

PCR-based screening methodologies are in the process of development. Although they speed up detection immensely, they are costly and the reliability of the tests is questionable due to false positives. Nested arbitrary PCR (ARB-PCR) was used during a 2007 CRE outbreak at the University of Virginia Medical Center to identify the specific "bla" KPC plasmid involved in the transmission of the infection, and researchers suggest that ARB-PCR may also be used to identify other methods of CRE spread.

There are several ways that drug resistance to TB, and drug resistance in general, can be prevented:

1. Rapid diagnosis & treatment of TB: One of the greatest risk factors for drug resistant TB is problems in treatment and diagnosis, especially in developing countries. If TB is identified and treated soon, drug resistance can be avoided.

2. Completion of treatment: Previous treatment of TB is an indicator of MDR TB. If the patient does not complete his/her antibiotic treatment, or if the physician does not prescribe the proper antibiotic regimen, resistance can develop. Also, drugs that are of poor quality or less in quantity, especially in developing countries, contribute to MDR TB.

3. Patients with HIV/AIDS should be identified and diagnosed as soon as possible. They lack the immunity to fight the TB infection and are at great risk of developing drug resistance.

4. Identify contacts who could have contracted TB: i.e. family members, people in close contact, etc.

5. Research: Much research and funding is needed in the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of TB and MDR TB.

"Opponents of a universal tuberculosis treatment, reasoning from misguided notions of cost-effectiveness, fail to acknowledge that MDRTB is not a disease of poor people in distant places. The disease is infectious and airborne. Treating only one group of patients looks inexpensive in the short run, but will prove disastrous for all in the long run."- Paul Farmer

In 1994, Stephen Crohn became the first person discovered to be completely resistant to HIV in all tests performed. In early 2000, researchers discovered a small group of sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya who were estimated to have sexual contact with 60 to 70 HIV positive clients a year without signs of infection. Researchers from Public Health Agency of Canada have identified 15 proteins unique to those virus-free sex workers. Later, however some sex workers were discovered to have contracted the virus, leading Oxford University researcher Sarah Rowland-Jones to believe continual exposure is a requirement for maintaining immunity.

Testing may be for a single infection, or consist of a number of tests for a range of STIs, including tests for syphilis, trichomonas, gonorrhea, chlamydia, herpes, hepatitis and HIV. No procedure tests for all infectious agents.

STI tests may be used for a number of reasons:

- as a diagnostic test to determine the cause of symptoms or illness

- as a screening test to detect asymptomatic or presymptomatic infections

- as a check that prospective sexual partners are free of disease before they engage in sex without safer sex precautions (for example, when starting a long term mutually monogamous sexual relationship, in fluid bonding, or for procreation).

- as a check prior to or during pregnancy, to prevent harm to the baby

- as a check after birth, to check that the baby has not caught an STI from the mother

- to prevent the use of infected donated blood or organs

- as part of the process of contact tracing from a known infected individual

- as part of mass epidemiological surveillance

Early identification and treatment results in less chance to spread disease, and for some conditions may improve the outcomes of treatment. There is often a window period after initial infection during which an STI test will be negative. During this period, the infection may be transmissible. The duration of this period varies depending on the infection and the test. Diagnosis may also be delayed by reluctance of the infected person to seek a medical professional. One report indicated that people turn to the Internet rather than to a medical professional for information on STIs to a higher degree than for other sexual problems.

The Mantoux tuberculin skin test is often used to screen people at high risk for TB. Those who have been previously immunized may have a false-positive test result. The test may be falsely negative in those with sarcoidosis, Hodgkin's lymphoma, malnutrition, and most notably, active tuberculosis. Interferon gamma release assays, on a blood sample, are recommended in those who are positive to the Mantoux test. These are not affected by immunization or most environmental mycobacteria, so they generate fewer false-positive results. However, they are affected by "M. szulgai", "M. marinum", and "M. kansasii". IGRAs may increase sensitivity when used in addition to the skin test, but may be less sensitive than the skin test when used alone.

A Canadian paper published in 2015 used a mouse model of chronic hepatitis B infection and showed that interfering with certain proteins can facilitate clearance of the virus which may have implications for human disease.

The disc diffusion method can be used by hospital laboratories to screen for CRE. In this technique, antibiotic discs are placed onto plates of Mueller Hinton agar that have already been inoculated with the sample strain. The plates are then incubated overnight at 37 °C. Following incubation, the zones of inhibition surrounding the various antibiotic discs are measured and compared with Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute guidelines. Identification of KPCs, MBLs and OXAs can be achieved by demonstrating synergistic inhibition with phenyl boronic acid, EDTA or neither, respectively.

In a Thailand-based study of CRE in hospital settings, carbapenem resistance was defined as any strain that shows resistance to at least one of three carbapenem antibiotics tested.

In March 2015, a group in China published an article regarding the development of a vaccine for hepatitis E. As of March 2016, the United States government was in the process of recruiting participants for the phase IV trial of the drug Hecolin.