Most countries have standard newborn exams that include a hip joint exam screening for early detection of hip dysplasia.

Sometimes during an exam a "click" or more precisely "clunk" in the hip may be detected (although not all clicks indicate hip dysplasia). When a hip click (also known as "clicky hips" in the UK) is detected, the child's hips are tracked with additional screenings to determine if developmental dysplasia of the hip is caused.

Two maneuvers commonly employed for diagnosis in neonatal exams are the Ortolani maneuver and the Barlow maneuver.

In order to do the Ortolani maneuver it is recommended that the examiner put the newborn baby in a position in which the contralateral hip is held still while the thigh of the hip being tested is abducted and gently pulled anteriorly. If a "clunk" is heard (the sound of the femoral head moving over the acetabulum), the joint is normal, but absence of the "clunk" sound indicates that the acetabulum is not fully developed. The next method that can be used is called the Barlow maneuver. It is done by adducting the hip while pushing the thigh posteriorly. If the hip goes out of the socket it means it is dislocated, and the newborn has a congenital hip dislocation. The baby is laid on its back for examination by separation of its legs. If a clicking sound can be heard, it indicates that the baby may have a dislocated hip. It is highly recommended that these maneuvers be done when the baby is not fussing, because the baby may inhibit hip movement.

The condition can be confirmed by ultrasound and X-ray. Ultrasound imaging yields better results defining the anatomy until the cartilage is ossified. When the infant is around 3 months old a clear roentgenographic image can be achieved. Unfortunately the time the joint gives a good x-ray image is also the point at which nonsurgical treatment methods cease to give good results. In x-ray imaging dislocation may be indicated if the Shenton's line (an arc drawn from the medial aspect of the femoral neck through the superior margin of the obturator foramen) does not result in a smooth arc. However, in infants this line can be unreliable as it depends on the rotation of the hip when the image is taken ()

Asymmetrical gluteal folds and an apparent limb-length inequality can further indicate unilateral hip dysplasia. Most vexingly, many newborn hips show a certain ligamentous laxity, on the other hand severely malformed joints can appear stable. That is one reason why follow-up exams and developmental monitoring are important. Frequency and methods of routine screenings in children is still in debate however physical examination of newborns followed by appropriate use of hip ultrasound is widely accepted.

The Harris hip score (developed by William H. Harris MD, an orthopedist from Massachusetts) is one way to evaluate hip function following surgery. Other scoring methods are based on patients' evaluation like e.g. the Oxford hip score, HOOS and WOMAC score. Children's Hospital Oakland Hip Evaluation Scale (CHOHES) is a modification of the Harris hip score that is currently being evaluated.

Hip dysplasia can develop in older age. Adolescents and adults with hip dysplasia may present with hip pain and in some cases hip labral tears. X-rays are used to confirm a diagnosis of hip dysplasia. CT scans and MRI scans are occasionally used too.

The diagnosis is usually initially made by a combination of physical exam and MRI of the shoulder, which can be done with or without the injection of intraarticular contrast. The presence of contrast allows for better evaluation of the glenoid labrum.

In 1979 Dr. John F. Crowe et al. proposed a classification to define the degree of malformation and dislocation. Grouped from least severe Crowe I dysplasia to most severe Crowe IV. This classification is very useful for studying treatment results.

Rather than using the Wiberg angle because it makes it difficult to quantify the degree of dislocation they used 3 key elements to determine the degree of subluxation: A reference line at the lower rim of the "teardrop", junction between the femoral head and neck of the respective joint and the height of the pelvis (vertical measurement). They studied anteroposterior pelvic x-rays and drew horizontal lines through the lower rim of a feature called "teardrop". The distance between this line and the middle lines of the junction between femur head and neck gave them a measure of the degree of femur head subluxation. They further established that a "normal" diameter of the femur head measures 20% of the height of the pelvis. If the middle line of the neck-head junction was more than 10% of the pelvis height above the reference line they considered the joint to be more than 50% dislocated.

The following types resulted:

Imaging diagnosis conventionally begins with plain film radiography. Generally, AP radiographs of the shoulder with the arm in internal rotation offer the best yield while axillary views and AP radiographs with external rotation tend to obscure the defect. However, pain and tenderness in the injured joint make appropriate positioning difficult and in a recent study of plain film x-ray for Hill–Sachs lesions, the sensitivity was only about 20%. i.e. the finding was not visible on plain film x-ray about 80% of the time.

By contrast, studies have shown the value of ultrasonography in diagnosing Hill–Sachs lesions. In a population with recurrent dislocation using findings at surgery as the gold standard, a sensitivity of 96% was demonstrated. In a second study of patients with continuing shoulder instability after trauma, and using double contrast CT as a gold standard, a sensitivity of over 95% was demonstrated for ultrasound. It should be borne in mind that in both those studies, patients were having continuing problems after initial injury, and therefore the presence of a Hill–Sachs lesion was more likely. Nevertheless, ultrasonography, which is noninvasive and free from radiation, offers important advantages.

MRI has also been shown to be highly reliable for the diagnosis of Hill-Sachs (and Bankart) lesions. One study used challenging methodology. First of all, it applied to those patients with a single, or first time, dislocation. Such lesions were likely to be smaller and therefore more difficult to detect. Second, two radiologists, who were blinded to the surgical outcome, reviewed the MRI findings, while two orthopedic surgeons, who were blinded to the MRI findings, reviewed videotapes of the arthroscopic procedures. Coefficiency of agreement was then calculated for the MRI and arthroscopic findings and there was total agreement ( kappa = 1.0) for Hill-Sachs and Bankart lesions.

Arthroscopic repair of Bankart injuries have high success rates, with studies showing that nearly one-third of patients require re-intervention for continued shoulder instability following repair. Options for repair include an arthroscopic technique or a more invasive open Latarjet procedure, with the open technique tending to have a lower incidence of recurrent dislocation, but also a reduced range of motion following surgery.

The decisions involved in the repair of the Hill–Sachs lesion are complex. First, it is not repaired simply because of its existence, but because of its association with continuing symptoms and instability. This may be of greatest importance in the under-25-year-old and in the athlete involved in throwing activities. The Hill-Sachs role in continuing symptoms, in turn, may be related to its size and large lesions, particularly if involving greater than 20% of the articular surface, may impinge on the glenoid fossa (engage), promoting further episodes of instability or even dislocation. Also, it is a fracture, and associated bony lesions or fractures may coexist in the glenoid, such as the so-called bony Bankart lesion. Consequently, its operative treatment may include some form of bony augmentation, such as the Latarjet or similar procedure. Finally, there is no guarantee that associated non-bony lesions, such as a Bankart lesion, SLAP tear, or biceps tendon injury, may not be present and require intervention.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound are comparable in efficacy and helpful in diagnosis although both have a false positive rate of 15 - 20%. MRI can reliably detect most full-thickness tears although very small pinpoint tears may be missed. In such situations, an MRI combined with an injection of contrast material, an MR-arthrogram, may help to confirm the diagnosis. It should be realized that a normal MRI cannot fully rule out a small tear (a false negative) while partial-thickness tears are not as reliably detected. While MRI is sensitive in identifying tendon degeneration (tendinopathy), it may not reliably distinguish between a degenerative tendon and a partially torn tendon. Again, magnetic resonance arthrography can improve the differentiation. An overall sensitivity of 91% (9% false negative rate) has been reported indicating that magnetic resonance arthrography is reliable in the detection of partial-thickness rotator cuff tears. However, its routine use is not advised, since it involves entering the joint with a needle with potential risk of infection. Consequently, the test is reserved for cases in which the diagnosis remains unclear.

Impingement syndrome can usually be diagnosed by history and physical exam. On physical exam, the physician may twist or elevate the patient's arm to test for reproducible pain (Neer sign and Hawkins-Kennedy test). These tests help localize the pathology to the rotator cuff; however, they are not specific for impingement. Neer sign may also be seen with subacromial bursitis.

The physician may inject lidocaine (usually combined with a steroid) into the bursa, and if there is an improved range of motion and decrease in pain, this is considered a positive "Impingement Test". It not only supports the diagnosis for impingement syndrome, but it is also therapeutic.

Plain x-rays of the shoulder can be used to detect some joint pathology and variations in the bones, including acromioclavicular arthritis, variations in the acromion, and calcification. However, x-rays do not allow visualization of soft tissue and thus hold a low diagnostic value. Ultrasonography, arthrography and MRI can be used to detect rotator cuff muscle pathology. MRI is the best imaging test prior to arthroscopic surgery. Due to lack of understanding of the pathoaetiology, and lack of diagnostic accuracy in the assessment process by many physicians, several opinions are recommended before intervention.

Anterior-posterior (AP) X-rays of the pelvis, AP and lateral views of the femur (knee included) are ordered for diagnosis. The size of the head of the femur is then compared across both sides of the pelvis. The affected femoral head will appear larger if the dislocation is anterior, and smaller if posterior. A CT scan may also be ordered to clarify the fracture pattern.

Musculoskeletal ultrasound has been advocated by experienced practitioners, avoiding the radiation of X-ray and the expense of MRI while demonstrating comparable accuracy to MRI for identifying and measuring the size of full-thickness and partial-thickness rotator cuff tears. This modality can also reveal the presence of other conditions that may mimic rotator cuff tear at clinical examination, including tendinosis, calcific tendinitis, subacromial subdeltoid bursitis, greater tuberosity fracture, and adhesive capsulitis. However, MRI provides more information about adjacent structures in the shoulder such as the capsule, glenoid labrum muscles and bone and these factors should be considered in each case when selecting the appropriate study.

X-rays may help visualize bone spurs, acromial anatomy and arthritis. Further, calcification in the subacromial space and rotator cuff may be revealed. Osteoarthritis of the acromioclavicular (AC) joint may co-exist and is usually demonstrated on radiographs.

MRI imagining can reveal fluid accumulation in the bursa and assess adjacent structures. In chronic cases caused by impingement tendinosis and tears in the rotator cuff may be revealed. At US, an abnormal bursa may show (1) fluid distension, (2) synovial proliferation, and/or (3) thickening of the bursal walls. In any case, the magnitude of pathological findings does not correlate with the magnitude of the symptoms.

After an anterior shoulder dislocation, the risk of a future dislocation is about 20%. This risk is greater in males than females.

Diagnosis is made on plain radiograph of the foot, although the extent of injury is often underestimated.

Treatment comprises early reduction of the dislocation, and frequently involves open reduction internal fixation to restore and stabilise the talonavicular joint. Open reduction and fusion of the calcaneocuboid joint is occasionally required.

Prompt medical treatment should be sought for suspected dislocation.

Usually, the shoulder is kept in its current position by use of a splint or sling. A pillow between the arm and torso may provide support and increase comfort. Strong analgesics are needed to allay the pain of a dislocation and the distress associated with it.

The hip should be reduced as quickly as possible to reduce the risk of osteonecrosis of the femoral head. This is done via inline manual traction with general anesthesia and muscle relaxation, or conscious sedation. Fractures of the femoral head and other loose bodies should be determined prior to reduction. Common closed reduction methods include the Allis method and Stimson method. Once reduction is completed management becomes less urgent and appropriate workup including CT scanning can be completed. Post-reduction, patients may begin early crutch-assisted ambulation with weight bearing as tolerated.

In patients with bursitis who have rheumatoid arthritis, short term improvements are not taken as a sign of resolution and may require long term treatment to ensure recurrence is minimized. Joint contracture of the shoulder has also been found to be at a higher incidence in type two diabetics, which may lead to frozen shoulder (Donatelli, 2004).

An effective rehabilitation program reduces the chances of reinjury and of other knee-related problems such as patellofemoral pain syndrome and osteoarthritis. Rehabilitation focuses on maintaining strength and range of motion to reduce pain and maintain the health of the muscles and tissues around the knee joint.

With prompt treatment, particularly open reduction, and early mobilisation the outcome is generally good. High energy injuries and associated fractures worsen the outcome.

Monteggia fractures may be managed conservatively in children with closed reduction (resetting and casting), but due to high risk of displacement causing malunion, open reduction internal fixation is typically performed.

Osteosynthesis (open reduction and internal fixation) of the ulnar shaft is considered the standard of care in adults. It promotes stability of the radial head dislocation and allows very early mobilisation to prevent stiffness. The elbow joint is particularly susceptible to loss of motion.

Definitive diagnosis of humerus fractures is typically made through radiographic imaging. For proximal fractures, X-rays can be taken from a scapular anteroposterior (AP) view, which takes an image of the front of the shoulder region from an angle, a scapular Y view, which takes an image of the back of the shoulder region from an angle, and an axillar lateral view, which has the patient lie on his or her back, lift the bottom half of the arm up to the side, and have an image taken of the axilla region underneath the shoulder. Fractures of the humerus shaft are usually correctly identified with radiographic images taken from the AP and lateral viewpoints. Damage to the radial nerve from a shaft fracture can be identified by an inability to bend the hand backwards or by decreased sensation in the back of the hand. Images of the distal region are often of poor quality due to the patient being unable to extend the elbow because of pain. If a severe distal fracture is supected, then a computed tomography (CT) scan can provide greater detail of the fracture. Nondisplaced distal fractures may not be directly visible; they may only be visible due to fat being displaced because of internal bleeding in the elbow.

Diagnosis of tendinitis and bursitis begins with a medical history and physical examination. X rays do not show tendons or the bursae but may be helpful in ruling out bony abnormalities or arthritis. The doctor may remove and test fluid from the inflamed area to rule out infection.

Ultrasound scans are frequently used to confirm a suspected tendinitis or bursitis as well as rule out a tear in the rotator cuff muscles.

Impingement syndrome may be confirmed when injection of a small amount of anesthetic (lidocaine hydrochloride) into the space under the acromion relieves pain.

Most fractures of the scapula can be seen on a chest X-ray; however, they may be missed during examination of the film. Serious associated injuries may distract from the scapular injury, and diagnosis is often delayed. Computed tomography may also be used. Scapular fractures can be detected in the standard chest and shoulder radiographs that are given to patients who have suffered significant physical trauma, but much of the scapula is hidden by the ribs on standard chest X-rays. Therefore, if scapular injury is suspected, more specific images of the scapular area can be taken.

Fractures of the humerus are classified based on the location of the fracture and then by the type of fracture. There are three locations that humerus fractures occur: at the proximal location, which is the top of the humerus near the shoulder, in the middle, which is at the shaft of the humerus, and the distal location, which is the bottom of the humerus near the elbow. Proximal fractures are classified into one of four types of fractures based on the displacement of the greater tubercle, the lesser tubercle, the surgical neck, and the anatomical neck, which are the four parts of the proximal humerus, with fracture displacement being defined as at least one centimeter of separation or an angulation greater than 45 degrees. One-part fractures involve no displacement of any parts of the humerus, two-part fractures have one part displaced relative to the other three; three-part fractures have two displaced fragments, and four-part fractures have all fragments displaced from each other. Fractures of the humerus shaft are subdivided into transverse fractures, spiral fractures, "butterfly" fractures, which are a combination of transverse and spiral fractures, and pathological fractures, which are fractures caused by medical conditions. Distal fractures are split between supracondylar fractures, which are transverse fractures above the two condyles at the bottom of the humerus, and intercondylar fractures, which involve a T- or Y-shaped fracture that splits the condyles.

The best diagnosis for a SLAP tear is a clinical exam

followed by an MRI combined with a contrast agent

Rate in the United States have been estimated to occur among an at-risk population of 1,774,210,081 people each year. Incidence rates published in the American Journal of Sports Medicine for ages 10–17 were found to be about 29 per 100,000 persons per year, while the adult population average for this type of injury ranged between 5.8 and 7.0 per 100,000 persons per year. The highest rates of patellar dislocation were found in the youngest age groups, while the rates declined with increasing ages. Females are more susceptible to patellar dislocation. Race is a significant factor for this injury, where Hispanics, African-Americans and Caucasians had slightly higher rates of patellar dislocation due to the types of athletic activity involved in: basketball (18.2%), soccer (6.9%), and football (6.9%), according to Brian Waterman.

Lateral Patellar dislocation is common among the child population. Some studies suggest that the annual patellar dislocation rate in children is 43/100,000. The treatment of the skeletally immature is controversial due to the fact that they are so young and are still growing. Surgery is recommended by some experts in order to repair the medial structures early, while others recommend treating it non operatively with physical therapy. If re-dislocation occurs then reconstruction of the medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) is the recommended surgical option.