Three main points in diagnosing thumb hypoplasia are: width of the first web space, instability of the involved joints and function of the thumb. Thorough physical examination together with anatomic verification at operation reveals all the anomalies. An X-ray of the hand and thumb in two directions is always mandatory. When the pediatrician thinks the condition is associated with some kind of syndrome other tests will be done. More subtle manifestations of types I and II may not be recognized, especially when more obvious manifestations of longitudinal radial deficiency in the opposite extremity are present. Therefore, a careful examination of both hands is important.

When it comes to treatment it is important to differentiate a thumb that needs stability, more web width and function, or a thumb that needs to be replaced by the index finger. Severe thumb hypoplasia is best treated by pollicization of the index finger. Less severe thumb hypoplasia can be reconstructed by first web space release, ligament reconstruction and muscle or tendon transfer.

It has been recommended that pollicization is performed before 12 months, but a long-term study of pollicizations performed between the age of 9 months and 16 years showed no differences in function related to age at operation.

It is important to know that every reconstruction of the thumb never gives a normal thumb, because there is always a decline of function. When a child has a good index finger, wrist and fore-arm the maximum strength of the thumb will be 50% after surgery in comparison with a normal thumb. The less developed the index finger, wrist and fore-arm is, the less strength the reconstructed thumb will have after surgery.

Diagnosis is based on clinical findings.

'Clinical findings'

- Profound congenital sensorineural deafness is present

- CT scan or MRI of the inner ear shows no recognizable structure in the inner ear.

- As michel's aplasia is associated with LAMM syndrome there will be Microtia and microdontia present(small sized teeth).

Molecular genetic Testing

1. "FGF3" is the only gene, whose mutation can cause congenital deafness with Michel's aplasia, microdontia and microtia

Carrier testing for at-risk relatives requires identification of mutations which are responsible for occurrence of disease in the family.

Prenatal Diagnosis:

- Aymé, "et al." (1989) reported prenatal diagnosis of Fryns syndrome by sonography between 24 and 27 weeks.

- Manouvrier-Hanu et al. (1996) described the prenatal diagnosis of Fryns syndrome by ultrasonographic detection of diaphragmatic hernia and cystic hygroma. The diagnosis was confirmed after termination of the pregnancy. The fetus also had 2 erupted incisors; natal teeth had not been mentioned in other cases of Fryns syndrome.

Differential Diagnosis:

- McPherson et al. (1993) noted the phenotypic overlap between Fryns syndrome and the Pallister–Killian syndrome (601803), which is a dysmorphic syndrome with tissue-specific mosaicism of tetrasomy 12p.

- Veldman et al. (2002) discussed the differentiation between Fryns syndrome and Pallister–Killian syndrome, noting that differentiation is important to genetic counseling because Fryns syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder and Pallister–Killian syndrome is usually a sporadic chromosomal aberration. However, discrimination may be difficult due to the phenotypic similarity. In fact, in some infants with 'coarse face,' acral hypoplasia, and internal anomalies, the initial diagnosis of Fryns syndrome had to be changed because mosaicism of isochromosome 12p was detected in fibroblast cultures or kidney tissue. Although congenital diaphragmatic hernia is a common finding in both syndromes, bilateral congenital diaphragmatic hernia had been reported only in patients with Fryns syndrome until the report of the patient with Pallister–Killian syndrome by Veldman et al. (2002).

- Slavotinek (2004) reviewed the phenotypes of 52 reported cases of Fryns syndrome and reevaluated the diagnostic guidelines. She concluded that congenital diaphragmatic hernia and distal limb hypoplasia are strongly suggestive of Fryns syndrome, with other diagnostically relevant findings including pulmonary hypoplasia, craniofacial dysmorphism, polyhydramnios, and orofacial clefting. Slavotinek (2004) stated that other distinctive anomalies not mentioned in previous guidelines include ventricular dilatation or hydrocephalus, agenesis of the corpus callosum, abnormalities of the aorta, dilatation of the ureters, proximal thumbs, and broad clavicles.

For most cases the diagnosis for congenital amputation is not made until the infant is born. One procedure that is helpful in determining this condition in an infant is an ultrasound examination of a fetus when still in the mother's abdomen as it can reveal the absence of a limb. However, since ultrasounds are routine they may not pick up all the signs of some of the more subtle birth defects.

The most popular method of treatment for congenital amputation is having the child be fit for a prosthesis which can lead to normal development, so the muscles don't atrophy. If there is congenital amputation of the fingers, plastic surgery can be performed by using the big toe or second toes in place of the missing fingers of the hand.

In rare cases of amniotic banding syndrome, if diagnosed "in utero", fetal surgery may be considered to save a limb which is in danger of amputation.

This can be done by annual evaluations by multidiciplinary team involving otolaryngologist, clinical geneticist, a pediatrician, the expertise of an educator of the deaf, a neurologist is appropriate.

There are a few different classifications conceived to categorize the spectrum of variety of congenital clasped thumb. In literature X classifications have been described for clasped thumb. The two most relevant of the existing classifications, to our opinion, are the classifications of McCarrol and Tjuyuguchi et al.

The most global format is the classification of McCarrol, which divides the congenital clasped thumbs into two groups. Group I includes the supple clasped thumb, when the thumb is only passively correctable. While complex clasped thumbs, thumbs which cannot be moved neither passively or actively, belong to group II.

Tjuyuguchi et al. designed a classification existing of three groups:

- Group I: The supple clasped thumb, where the thumb is passively abductable and extendable against the resistance of thumb flexors, without other digital anomalies.

- Group II: The clasped thumb with hand contractures, where the thumb is not passively extendable and abductable, with or without other digital anomalies.

- Group III: The clasped thumb which is associated with arthrogryposis.

Because neither of the two thumb components is normal, a decision should be taken on combining which elements to create the best possible composite digit. Instead of amputating the most hypoplastic thumb, preservation of skin, nail, collateral ligaments and tendons is needed to augment the residual thumb. Surgery is recommended in the first year of life, generally between 9 and 15 months of age.

Surgical options depend on type of polydactyly.

The complete or partial absence of the pectoralis muscle is the malformation that defines Poland Syndrome. It can be treated by inserting a custom implant designed by CAD (computer aided design). A 3D reconstruction of the patient's chest is performed from a medical scanner to design a virtual implant perfectly adapted to the anatomy of each one. The implant is made of medical silicone unbreakable rubber. This treatment is purely cosmetic and does not make up for the patient's imbalanced upper body strength.

The Poland syndrome malformations being morphological, correction by custom implant is a first-line treatment. This technique allows a wide variety of patients to be treated with good outcomes. Poland Syndrome can be associated with bones, subcutaneous and mammary atrophy: if the first, as for pectus excavatum, is successfully corrected by a custom implant, the others can require surgical intervention such as lipofilling or silicone breast implant, in a second operation.

No surgical outcomes studies exist for evaluating the function of the thumbs after an on-top plasty reconstruction.

There are four levels (or "types") of malformation. The least severe indicates partial deformation (unilateral) of the sacrum. The second level indicates a bilateral (uniform) deformation. The most severe types involve a total absence of the sacrum.

Depending on the type of sacral agenesis, bowel or urinary bladder deficiencies may be present. A permanent colostomy may be necessary in the case of imperforate anus. Incontinence may also require some type of continence control system (e.g., self-catheterization) be utilized. Occasionally if deformities of the knees, legs or feet would prove unresponsive to corrective action, amputation at the knee may be proposed.

Before more comprehensive medical treatment was available, full amputation of the legs at the hip was often performed. More recently, the 'amputation' (actually a disarticulation because no cutting of the bone is involved) is done at the knee for those who have bent knee positions and webbing between thigh and calf to enable more ease of mobility and better seating. Some children with knee disarticulation use prosthetic legs to walk. Prosthetics for children without substantial hip and trunk control is usually abandoned in favor of faster and easier wheelchair mobility as the child's weight and age increases. Children may 'walk' on their hands and generally are able to climb and move about to accomplish whatever they need and want to accomplish. Children more mildly affected may have normal gait and no need for assistive devices for walking. Others may walk with bracing or crutches.

There is typically no cognitive impairment associated with this disability. Adults with this disability live independently, attend college, and have careers in various fields. In 2012, Spencer West, a man with sacral agenesis and both legs amputated, climbed Mt. Kilimanjaro using only his hands.

There are several classifications for cleft hand, but the most used classification is described by Manske and Halikis see table 3. This classification is based on the first web space. The first web space is the space between the thumb and the index.

Table 3: Classification for cleft hand described by Manske and Halikis

The timing of surgical interventions is debatable. Parents have to decide about their child in a very vulnerable time of their parenthood. Indications for early treatment are progressive deformities, such as syndactyly between index and thumb or transverse bones between the digital rays. Other surgical interventions are less urgent and can wait for 1 or 2 years.

Studies suggest that prenatal care for mothers during their pregnancies can prevent congenital amputation. Knowing environmental and genetic risks is also important. Heavy exposure to chemicals, smoking, alcohol, poor diet, or engaging in any other teratogenic activities while pregnant can increase the risk of having a child born with a congenital amputation. Folic acid is a multivitamin that has been found to reduce birth defects.

Carrier testing for Roberts syndrome requires prior identification of the disease-causing mutation in the family. Carriers for the disorder are heterozygotes due to the autosomal recessive nature of the disease. Carriers are also not at risk for contracting Roberts syndrome themselves. A prenatal diagnosis of Roberts syndrome requires an ultrasound examination paired with cytogenetic testing or prior identification of the disease-causing ESCO2 mutations in the family.

The surgery takes place under general anaesthesia and lasts less than 1 hour. The surgeon prepares the locus to the size of the implant after performing a 8-cm axillary incision and inserts the implant beneath the skin. The closure is made in 2 planes.

The implant will replace the pectoralis major muscle, thus enabling the thorax to be symmetrical and, in women, the breast as well. If necessary, especially in the case of women, a second operation will complement the result by the implantation of a breast implant and / or lipofilling.

Lipomodelling is progressively used in the correction of breast and chest wall deformities. In Poland syndrome, this technique appears to be a major advance that will probably revolutionize the treatment of severe cases. This is mainly due to its ability to achieve previously unachievable quality of reconstruction with minimal scaring.

Very few risk factors for choanal atresia have been identified. While causes are unknown, both genetic and environmental triggers are suspected. One study suggests that chemicals that act as endocrine disrupters may put an unborn infant at risk. A 2012 epidemiological study looked at atrazine, a commonly used herbicide in the U.S., and found that women who lived in counties in Texas with the highest levels of this chemical being used to treat agricultural crops were 80 times more likely to give birth to infants with choanal atresia or stenosis compared to women who lived in the counties with the lowest levels. Another epidemiological report in 2010 found even higher associations between increased incidents of choanal atresia and exposure to second-hand-smoke, coffee consumption, high maternal zinc and B-12 intake and exposure to anti-infective urinary tract medications.

Research on prenatal diagnosis has shown that a diagnosis can be made prenatally in approximately 50% of fetuses presenting arthrogryposis. It could be found during routine ultrasound scanning showing a lack of mobility and abnormal position of the foetus. Nowadays there are more options for visualization of details and structures can be seen well, like the use of 4D ultrasound. In clinic a child can be diagnosed with arthrogryposis with physical examination, confirmed by ultrasound, , or muscle biopsy.

Treatment of congenital clasped thumb includes two types of therapy: conservative and surgical.

Genetic counseling for VWS involves discussion of disease transmission in the autosomal dominant manner and possibilities for penetrance and expression in offspring. Autosomal dominance means affected parents have a 50% chance of passing on their mutated "IRF6" allele to a their child. Furthermore, if a cleft patient has lip pits, he or she has a ten times greater risk of having a child with cleft lip with or without cleft palate than a cleft patient who does not have lip pits. Types of clefting between parents and affected children are significantly associated; however, different types of clefts may occur horizontally and vertically within the same pedigree. In cases where clefting is the only symptom, a complete family history must be taken to ensure the patient does not have non-syndromic clefting.

In France, Aymé, "et al." (1989) estimated the prevalence of Fryns syndrome to be 0.7 per 10,000 births based on the diagnosis of 6 cases in a series of 112,276 consecutive births (live births and perinatal deaths).

Many other surgeries are also able to improve function in joints of arthrogryposis patients. These surgeries usually exist out of tendon transfers and skin flap movements, adjusted to the individual.

Cytogenetic preparations that have been stained by either Giemsa or C-banding techniques will show two characteristic chromosomal abnormalities. The first chromosomal abnormality is called premature centromere separation (PCS) and is the most likely pathogenic mechanism for Roberts syndrome. Chromosomes that have PCS will have their centromeres separate during metaphase rather than anaphase (one phase earlier than normal chromosomes). The second chromosomal abnormality is called heterochromatin repulsion (HR). Chromosomes that have HR experience separation of the heterochromatic regions during metaphase. Chromosomes with these two abnormalities will display a "railroad track" appearance because of the absence of primary constriction and repulsion at the heterochromatic regions. The heterochromatic regions are the areas near the centromeres and nucleolar organizers. Carrier status cannot be determined by cytogenetic testing. Other common findings of cytogenetic testing on Roberts syndrome patients are listed below.

- Aneuploidy- the occurrence of one or more extra or missing chromosomes

- Micronucleation- nucleus is smaller than normal

- Multilobulated Nuclei- the nucleus has more than one lobe

ONH is diagnosed by ophthalmoscopic examination. Patients with ONH exhibit an optic nerve that appears smaller than normal and different in appearance from small optic nerves caused by other eye conditions such as optic (nerve) atrophy.

DM:DD ratio has proven to be a clinically useful measurement to help diagnose optic nerve hypoplasia. Where "DM" represents the distance from Disk to Macula, and "DD" represents Disc Diameter.

The mean disc diameter (DD) is (Vertical diameter of Disc+Horizontal diameter of Disc)divided by 2. The distance between the center of the disc and the macula is DM.

"Interpretation:" When the ratio of DM to DD is greater than 3, ONH is suspected, and when it is greater than 4, Optic Nerve Hypoplasia is definite.

In cases of a minor deviation of the wrist, treatment by splinting and stretching alone may be a sufficient approach in treating the radial deviation in RD. Besides that, the parent can support this treatment by performing passive exercises of the hand. This will help to stretch the wrist and also possibly correct any extension contracture of the elbow. Furthermore, splinting is used as a postoperative measure trying to avoid a relapse of the radial deviation.