Cheating at the Paralympic Games has caused scandals that have significantly changed the way in which the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) manages the events.

Testing for performance-enhancing drugs has become increasingly strict and more widespread throughout the Games, with powerlifting seeing the most positive results. Competitors without disabilities have also competed in some Paralympic Games, with the Spanish entry in the intellectually disabled basketball tournament at the 2000 Summer Paralympics being the most controversial.

Athletes seeking to avoid testing positive use various methods. The most common methods include:

- Urine replacement, which involves replacing dirty urine with clean urine from someone who is not taking banned substances. Urine replacement can be done by catheterization or with a prosthetic penis such as The Original Whizzinator.

- Diuretics, used to cleanse the system before having to provide a sample.

- Blood transfusions, which increase the blood's oxygen carrying capacity, in turn increasing endurance without the presence of drugs that could trigger a positive test result.

Doping in Russian sports has a systemic nature. Russia has had 51 Olympic medals stripped for doping violations – the most of any country, four times the number of the runner-up, and more than a third of the global total. From 2011 to 2015, more than a thousand Russian competitors in various sports, including summer, winter, and Paralympic sports, benefited from a cover-up.

The 2007 Tour de France was affected by a series of scandals and speculations related to doping. By the end of the Tour, two cyclists were dismissed for failing tests and the wearer of the yellow jersey was voluntarily retired by his team for lying about his whereabouts and missing doping tests. A fourth rider was confirmed to having used doping while in a training session prior to the 2007 Tour and a fifth rider failed tests late in the race, with his result being officially announced just after the end of the Tour. During the competition, two teams were asked to withdraw after at least one member was found to have doped.

The events generated criticism and a general distrustful attitude toward the sport of professional cycling from media and public opinion. The doping allegations also resulted in several team sponsors threatening to retire their support if events advanced further. Some media such as German TV channels ARD and ZDF left the Tour once the first scandals broke. Following the Tour's conclusion, the sport's governing bodies spoke out about ways to combat the prevalence of doping in cycling and key team sponsors elected to withdraw their support due to the reputational damage caused by the scandals. The 2007 Tour de France has been referred to as one of the most controversial Tours. After the end of the Tour, "The Times" of London ranked it 4th in its list of the top 50 sporting scandals.

Side effects in women include:

- hair loss

- male pattern baldness

- hypertrophy of the clitoris

- increased sex drive

- irregularities of the menstrual cycle

- development of masculine facial traits

- increased coarseness of the skin

- premature closure of the epiphysis

In countries where the use of these drugs is controlled, there is often a black market trade of smuggled or counterfeit drugs. The quality of these drugs may be poor and can cause health risks. In countries where anabolic steroids are strictly regulated, some have called for a regulatory relief. Steroids are available over-the-counter in some countries such as Thailand and Mexico.

OSHA issued voluntary training guidelines in 1992. These guidelines serve as a model for trainers to use in developing, organizing, evaluating, and editing their safety training programs. It is important for trainers to tailor the OSHA guidelines to their specific work site so that the training is relevant to the specific working conditions and not just a long generalized informational session.

Many standards promulgated by OSHA explicitly require the employer to train employees in the safety and health aspects of their jobs. Other OSHA standards make it the employer’s responsibility to limit certain job assignments to employees who are “certified,” “competent,” or “qualified”—meaning that they have had special previous training, in or out of the workplace. The term “designated” personnel means selected or assigned by the employer or the employer’s representative as being qualified to perform specific duties. These requirements reflect OSHA’s belief that training is an essential part of every employer’s safety and health program for protecting workers from injuries and illnesses.

OSHA’s training guidelines follow a model that consists of:

- A. Determining if Training is Needed

- B. Identifying Training Needs

- C. Identifying Goals and Objectives

- D. Developing learning activities

- E. Conducting the training

- F. Evaluating program effectiveness

- G. Improving the program

- H. Training must align with job tasks.

- A. Determining if training is needed

You first have to determine if a situation can be solved using training. Training, or retraining as the case may be, could be required by an OSHA standard. Training is an effective solution to problems such as employee lack of understanding, unfamiliarity with equipment, incorrect execution of a task, lack of attention, or lack of motivation. Sometimes, however, the situation cannot be mitigated through the use of training and other methods, such as the establishment of engineering controls, may be needed to ensure worker safety.

- B. Identifying training needs

A job safety analysis and/or a job hazard analysis should be conducted with every employee so that it is understood what is needed to do the job safely and what hazards are associated with the job. A safety trainer may observe the worker in his/her environment to adequately assess the worker's training needs. Certain employees may need extra training due to the hazards associated with their particular job. These employees should be trained not only on

how to perform their job safely but also on how to operate within a hazardous

environment.

- C. Identifying Goals and Objectives

It is important for the Trainer to identify necessary training material. It is equally important that the trainer identify training material that is not needed to avoid unnecessary training and frustration from their trainees.

At the beginning of every safety training session the trainer should clearly iterate the objectives of the class. The objectives should be delivered using action oriented words like: the employee... "will be able to demonstrate" or "will know when to"... which will help the audience understand what he/she should know by the end of the class or what to information to assimilate during the class. Clearly established objectives also help focus the evaluation process on those skill sets and knowledge requirements necessary to perform the job safely.

- D. Developing Learning Activities

Training should be hands-on and simulate the job as closely as possible. Trainers can use instructional aids such as charts, manuals, PowerPoint presentations, and films. Trainers can also include role-playing, live demonstrations, and round-table group discussions to stimulate employee participation. Games like "what's wrong with this picture" (it is usually good to use pictures of situations found at their specific location)" or "safety jeopardy" can be useful ways to make the training fun yet educational.

- E. Conducting the Training

Trainers should provide employees with an overview of the material to be learned and relate the training to the employees' experiences. Employers should also reinforce what the employees have learned by summarizing the program's objectives and key points of training. At the beginning of the training program, the trainer should show the employees why the material is important and relevant to their jobs. Employees are more likely to pay attention and apply what they've learned if they know the benefits of the training.

- F. Evaluating Program Effectiveness

Evaluation will help employers or supervisors determine the amount of learning achieved and whether an employee’s performance has improved on the job. Among the methods of evaluating training are:

- (1) Student opinion. Questionnaires or informal discussions with employees can help employers determine the relevance and appropriateness of the training program

- (2) Supervisors’ observations. Supervisors are in good positions to observe an employee’s performance both before and after the training and note improvements or changes

- (3) Workplace improvements. The ultimate success of a training program may be changes throughout the workplace that result in reduced injury or accident rates

- (4) Formal assessments. Practical and written exams also assist in evaluating understanding of training material. For example, for a lift-truck operator, a written and a practical exam would identify areas of training that may need to be revisited. Furthermore administering a pre-test and post-test will establish a knowledge base line or reference point to measure training effectiveness.

- G. Improving the Program

As evaluations are reviewed, it may be evident the training was not adequate and that the employees did not reach the expected level of knowledge and skill. As the program is evaluated, the trainer should ask:

- (1) If a job analysis was conducted, was it accurate?

- (2) Was any critical feature of the job overlooked?

- (3) Were the important gaps in knowledge and skill included?

- (4) Was material already known by the employees intentionally omitted?

- (5) Were the instructional objectives presented clearly and concretely?

- (6) Did the objectives state the level of acceptable performance that was expected of employees?

- (7) Did the learning activity simulate the actual job?

- (8) Was the learning activity appropriate for the kinds of knowledge and skills required on the job?

- (9) When the training was presented, was the organization of the material and its meaning made clear?

- (10) Were the employees motivated to learn?

- (11) Were the employees allowed to participate actively in the training process?

- (12) Was the employer’s evaluation of the program thorough?

Ladan and Laleh Bijani (in Persian: ) (January 17, 1974 – July 8, 2003) were Iranian conjoined twin sisters. They were joined at the head and died immediately after their complicated surgical separation. Coincidentally, the twins were born 100 years to the day of the deaths of Chang and Eng Bunker, also conjoined twins, famously known as the "original" Siamese twins.

Employers must have an overall safety program including relative site specific safety information where applicable. The safety training program should cover topics such as:

- accident prevention and safety promotion

- safety compliance

- accident and emergency response

- personal protective equipment

- safety practices

- equipment and machinery

- chemical and hazardous materials safety

- workplace hazards

- employee involvement

Employers must document all training. Creating a training matrix will help keep track of who has been trained, when they were trained, the training topic, and when it is time for refresher training. Employees must also sign an official sign-in sheet provided by the employer that can serve as proof that employees received proper training. The sign in sheet must have a broad description of what is being covered in the training. Tests or quizzes on the presented material can help gauge employee understanding of the material and highlight topics that need to be reviewed.

The non-English speaking population is consistently growing in many industries and it is important that employers provide bilingual training for those workers, as OSHA requires that all employees be properly trained.

Most employees display attitudes of disinterest and dread at the thought of attending a safety training, which can leave the trainer feeling frustrated and unappreciated. It is the trainer's duty to make safety training fun and educational, which will help the trainees to retain the information, enjoy the course, and apply the learning to their work and lives.

There have been allegations of doping in the Tour de France since the race began in 1903. Early Tour riders consumed alcohol and used ether, among other substances, as a means of dulling the pain of competing in endurance cycling. Riders began using substances as a means of increasing performance rather than dulling the senses, and organizing bodies such as the "Tour" and the International Cycling Union (UCI), as well as government bodies, enacted policies to combat the practice.

Use of performance-enhancing drugs in cycling predates the Tour de France. Cycling, having been from the start a sport of extremes, whether of speed by being paced by tandems, motorcycles and even cars, or of distance, the suffering involved encouraged the means to alleviate it. Not until after World War II were sporting or even particularly health issues raised. Those came shortly before the death of Tom Simpson in the Tour de France of 1967. Max Novich referred to the Tour de France in a 1973 issue of "New York State Journal of Medicine" as "a cycling nightmare". In the eyes of a 1998 German observer:

Nudity, or nakedness, is the state of wearing no clothing. The wearing of clothing is a predominantly human characteristic arising from functional needs such as protection from the elements and from cold temperatures, after the loss of body hair, and migration to colder regions. The amount of clothing worn depends on functional considerations, such as a need for warmth, as well as social circumstances. In some situations, a minimum amount of clothing or none at all may be considered socially acceptable, while in others much more clothing may be expected. Social considerations involve cultural issues of modesty, subjective decency and social norms, besides other considerations, and these may depend on the context. There may also be legal considerations.

Tetraphobia (from Greek τετράς—"tetras", "four" and φόβος—"phobos", "fear") is the practice of avoiding instances of the number . It is a superstition most common in East Asian nations.

What follows is a list of all the athletes that have tested positive for a banned substance either during or before an Asian Games in which they competed. Any medals listed were revoked.

14 of the 25 most recent winners (56%) have either failed tests or have confessed to have used doping. Together with those who failed tests but never sanctioned, 68% of the winners evidently used doping as detailed in the table below.

Video game playing may be associated with vision problems. Extensive viewing of the screen can cause eye strain, as the cornea, pupil, and iris are not intended for mass viewing sessions of electronic devices. Using video games for too long may also cause headaches, dizziness, and chances of vomiting from focusing on a screen.

However, certain studies have shown that video games can be used to improve various eye conditions. An investigation into the effect of action gaming on spatial distribution of attention was conducted and revealed that gamers exhibited an enhancement with attention resources compared to non-gamers, not only in the periphery but also in central vision. Further studies in 2011, concluded that a combination of video game therapy alongside occlusion therapy, would greatly improve the recovery of visual acuity in those experiencing amblyopia.

"Full nudity" refers to complete nudity, while "partial nudity" refers to less than full nudity, with parts of the body covered in some manner. The term "partial nudity" is sometimes used to refer to exposure of skin beyond what the person using the expression considers to be within the limits of modesty. If the exposure is within the standards of modesty of a given culture and setting (e.g. wearing a bikini at a non-nude beach), terms such as nudity, partial or otherwise, are not normally used. If however, the degree of exposure exceeds the cultural norms of the setting, or if the activity or setting includes nudity as an understood part of its function, such as a nude beach, terminology relating to nudity and degrees thereof are typically used. Toplessness is regarded by most people as partial nudity.

"Full frontal nudity" describes a state of full nudity with the subject facing towards the viewer, with the whole front of the body exposed, including intimate parts such as a man's penis or woman's vulva. "Partial frontal nudity" typically only refers to the exposure of the breasts. "Non-frontal nudity" describes nudity where the whole back side of the body, including the buttocks, is exposed, or a side-view from any other direction.

The ideal ratio of the length of the miniskirt, the exposed portion of thigh, and the over-knee part of the socks is often considered to be 4:1:2.5, with a tolerance of 25%.

Zettai ryōiki fans classify it by visible bare skin area, that depends on height of the socks and length of the skirt. A zettai ryōiki is graded from grade E (too much leg is seen, the skirt is also too long) to grade A (short skirt, high socks, short exposed area).

The "British Medical Journal" reported in a study that looked at mortality statistics in the United States over a

25-year period. They found that on the fourth day of the month, Asian people were thirteen percent more likely to die of heart failure. In California, Asians were twenty-seven percent more likely to die of a heart attack on that day. The purpose of the study was to see if psychological stress caused by belief in this superstition could indeed trigger deadly heart attacks and other fatal incidents.

Video game-related health problems can induce repetitive strain injuries, skin disorders or other health issues. Other problems include video game-provoked seizures in patients with epilepsy. In rare and extreme cases, deaths have resulted from excessive video game playing (see Deaths due to video game addiction).

Survivor guilt (or survivor's guilt; also called survivor syndrome or survivor's syndrome) is a mental condition that occurs when a person believes they have done something wrong by surviving a traumatic event when others did not. It may be found among survivors of murder, terrorism, combat, natural disasters, epidemics, among the friends and family of those who have died by suicide, and in non-mortal situation. The experience and manifestation of survivor's guilt will depend on an individual's psychological profile. When the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV" (DSM-IV) was published, survivor guilt was removed as a recognized specific diagnosis, and redefined as a significant symptom of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

In 1996, they traveled to Germany, trying to convince doctors there to separate them; the German doctors however declined to operate, saying that the risk of separation surgery would be too high for both of them.

In November 2002, after meeting Dr. Keith Goh, the Bijani sisters travelled to Singapore to undergo the controversial operation. Even though they were warned by the doctors that the surgery to separate them would still be very risky, the sisters were very determined. Their decision to go ahead with the operation caused an international media blitz.

After eight months in Singapore, doing extensive psychiatric and legal evaluations, they underwent surgery on July 6, 2003, under the care of a large team of international specialists at Raffles Hospital, composed of 28 surgeons (including neurosurgeon Ben Carson) and more than 100 support staff working in shifts. A specially-designed chair was required that allowed the operation to be performed with both sisters in a sitting position.

The attempt to separate the twins turned out to be very difficult, because their brains not only shared a major vein (the superior sagittal sinus), but had fused together. The separation was achieved on July 8, 2003, but it was announced then that the twins were in critical condition, both having lost a large volume of blood due to complications of the operation.

The separation stage of the surgery completed at 13:30 (Singapore time, UTC +8), but there was significant blood loss during the blood vessel repairing process, and Ladan died at around 14:30 on the operating table; her sister Laleh died about 90 minutes later. Their deaths were announced by the chairman of Raffles Hospital, Dr. Loo Choon Yong.

Video game addiction (VGA) is a hypothetical behavioral addiction characterized by excessive or compulsive use of computer games or video games, which interferes with a person's everyday life. Video game addiction may present itself as compulsive gaming, social isolation, mood swings, diminished imagination, and hyper-focus on in-game achievements, to the exclusion of other events in life.

In May 2013, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) proposed criteria for video game addiction in the 5th edition of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", concluding that there was insufficient evidence to include it as an official mental disorder. However, proposed criteria for "Internet Gaming Disorder" were included in a section called "Conditions for Further Study".

While Internet gaming disorder is proposed as a disorder, it is still discussed how much this disorder is caused by the gaming activity itself, or whether it is to some extent an effect of other disorders. Contradictions in research examining video game addictiveness may reflect more general inconsistencies in video game research. For example, while some research has linked violent video games with increased aggressive behavior other research has failed to find evidence for such links.

Concussions and other types of repetitive play-related head blows in American football have been shown to be the cause of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which has led to player suicides and other debilitating symptoms after retirement, including memory loss, depression, anxiety, headaches, and also sleep disturbances.

The list of ex-NFL players that have either been diagnosed "post-mortem" with CTE or have reported symptoms of CTE continues to grow.

Pregaming has been associated with binge drinking and other dangerous activities, leading some universities to attempt to crack down on the practice. Government agencies at both the state and federal level have studied the problems created by pregaming.

The furtive nature of pregaming and bingeing can lead to massive quick consumption, acute alcohol poisoning, hospitalization, and death.

A 2012 study of more 250 Swiss students indicated that those who "pre-loaded" ended up consuming more total alcohol over the night (seven drinks rather than four) and engaged in riskier behavior. They had a 24% chance of reporting negative consequences from drinking (such as injury, unprotected sex, and unplanned drug use), compared to 18% chance for those who did not pre-drink.

Since the introduction of doping tests in 1964, many cyclists were caught in the Tour de France. In recent years, 1996 Tour de France winner Bjarne Riis and points classification winner Erik Zabel, along with most of their Team Telekom team-mates, confessed to using erythropoietin (EPO). In 1997, former points classification winner Djamolidine Abdoujaparov was disqualified from the Tour de France for doping use. In 1998, the Festina affair had several main contenders removed from the race. In the next years, several riders were removed from the Tour de France for doping (see List of doping cases in cycling).

In addition, several riders were not allowed to start the previous Tour, including Jan Ullrich and Ivan Basso because of their involvement in the Operación Puerto doping case, a Spanish investigation against doctor Eufemiano Fuentes and a number of accomplices accused of administering prohibited doping products to approximately two hundred professional athletes, to enhance their performance.

After the completion of the 2006 Tour, winner Floyd Landis was found to have an elevated testosterone to epitestosterone ratio on a sample taken following Stage 17 of the race, and at the time of the 2007 Tour prologue. Since the results of an independent arbitration hearing were still pending Landis was prevented from defending his title. He was stripped of his 2006 Tour title in September 2007.

Pregaming (also pre-drinking or pre-loading) is the process of getting drunk prior to going out socializing, typically done by college students and young adults in the United States and Europe, in a manner as cost-efficient as possible, with hard liquor and cheap beer consumed while in small groups.

Although pregaming is typically done before a night out, it can also precede other activities, like attending a college football game, large party, social function, or another activity where possession of alcohol may be limited or prohibited. The name "pregaming" spread from the drinking that took place during tailgating before football games to encompass similar drinking periods.

Other terms for the practice are pre-partying, prinking and (in Europe) prefunking.