Ancillary testing is not usually necessary to make the diagnosis. Fluorescein angiography reveals an abrupt diminution in dye at the site of the obstruction. Visual field testing can confirm the extent of visual loss.

Several treatments have been attempted for CRAS; however, none show definitive improvement in outcomes. The Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society lists Central Retinal Artery Occlusion (CRAO) as an approved indication for Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy. This a treatment for CRAO that is covered by medical insurance in North America. Other treatments include ocular massage, anterior chamber paracentesis, and inhalation therapy of a mixture of 5% carbon dioxide and 95% oxygen.

No proved treatment exists for branch retinal artery occlusion.

In the rare patient who has branch retinal artery obstruction accompanied by a systemic disorder, systemic anti-coagulation may prevent further events.

Quick determination of the cause may lead to urgent measures to save the eye and life of the patient. High clinical suspicion should be kept for painless vision loss in patients with atherosclerosis, deep venous thrombosis, atrial fibrillation, pulmonary thromboembolism or other previous embolic episodes. Those caused by a carotid artery embolism or occlusion have the potential for further stroke by detachment of embolus and migration to an end-artery of the brain. Hence, proper steps to prevent such an eventuality need to be taken.

Retinal arterial occlusion is an ophthalmic emergency, and prompt treatment is essential. Completely anoxic retina in animal models causes irreversible damage in about 90 minutes. Nonspecific methods to increase blood flow and dislodge emboli include digital massage, 500 mg IV acetazolamide and 100 mg IV methylprednisolone (for possible arteritis). Additional measures include paracentesis of aqueous humor to decrease IOP acutely. An ESR should be drawn to detect possible giant cell arteritis. Improvement can be determined by visual acuity, visual field testing, and by ophthalmoscopic examination.

At a later stage, pan-retinal photocoagulation (PRP) with an argon laser appears effective in reducing the neovascular components and their sequelae.

The visual prognosis for ocular ischemic syndrome varies from usually poor to fair, depending on speed and effectiveness of the intervention. However, prompt diagnosis is crucial as the condition may be a presenting sign of serious cerebrovascular and ischemic heart diseases.

In 2009, the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society added "central retinal artery occlusion" to their list of approved indications for hyperbaric oxygen (HBO). When used as an adjunctive therapy, the edema reducing properties of HBO, along with down regulation of inflammatory cytokines may contribute to the improvement in vision. Prevention of vision loss requires that certain conditions be met: the treatment be started before irreversible damage has occurred (over 24 hours), the occlusion must not also occur at the ophthalmic artery, and treatment must continue until the inner layers of the retina are again oxygenated by the retinal arteries.

The artery can re-canalize over time and the edema can clear. However, optic atrophy leads to permanent loss of vision. Irreversible damage to neural tissue occurs after only 90 minutes. Two thirds of patients experience 20/400 vision while only one in six will experience 20/40 vision or better.

The diagnosis of BRVO is made clinically by finding retinal hemorrhages in the distribution of an obstructed retinal vein.

- Fluorescein angiography is a helpful adjunct. Findings include delayed venous filling, hypofluorescence caused by hemorrhage and capillary nonperfusion, dilation and tortuosity of veins, leakage due to neovascularization and macular edema.

- Optical coherence tomography is an adjunctive test in BRVO. Macular edema is commonly seen in BRVO in OCT exams. Serial OCT is used as a rapid and noninvasive way of monitoring the macular edema.

Treatment consists of Anti-VEGF drugs like Lucentis or intravitreal steroid implant (Ozurdex) and Pan-Retinal Laser Photocoagulation usually. Underlying conditions also require treatment. Non-Ischemic CRVO has better visual prognosis than Ischemic CRVO.

A systematic review studied the effectiveness of the anti-VEGF drugs ranibizumab and pagatanib sodium for patients suffering from non-ischemic CRVO. Though there was a limited sample size, participants in both treatment groups showed improved visual acuity over 6 month periods, with no safety concerns.

Despite the temporary nature of the vision loss, those experiencing amaurosis fugax are usually advised to consult a physician immediately as it is a symptom that may herald serious vascular events, including stroke. Restated, “because of the brief interval between the transient event and a stroke or blindness from temporal arteritis, the workup for transient monocular blindness should be undertaken without delay.” If the patient has no history of giant cell arteritis, the probability of vision preservation is high; however, the chance of a stroke reaches that for a hemispheric TIA. Therefore, investigation of cardiac disease is justified.

A diagnostic evaluation should begin with the patient's history, followed by a physical exam, with particular importance being paid to the ophthalmic examination with regards to signs of ocular ischemia. When investigating amaurosis fugax, an ophthalmologic consult is absolutely warranted if available. Several concomitant laboratory tests should also be ordered to investigate some of the more common, systemic causes listed above, including a complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, lipid panel, and blood glucose level. If a particular cause is suspected based on the history and physical, additional relevant labs should be ordered.

If laboratory tests are abnormal, a systemic disease process is likely, and, if the ophthalmologic examination is abnormal, ocular disease is likely. However, in the event that both of these routes of investigation yield normal findings or an inadequate explanation, noninvasive duplex ultrasound studies are recommended to identify carotid artery disease. Most episodes of amaurosis fugax are the result of stenosis of the ipsilateral carotid artery. With that being the case, researchers investigated how best to evaluate these episodes of vision loss, and concluded that for patients ranging from 36–74 years old, "...carotid artery duplex scanning should be performed...as this investigation is more likely to provide useful information than an extensive cardiac screening (ECG, Holter 24-hour monitoring, and precordial echocardiography)." Additionally, concomitant head CT or MRI imaging is also recommended to investigate the presence of a “clinically silent cerebral embolism.”

If the results of the ultrasound and intracranial imaging are normal, “renewed diagnostic efforts may be made,” during which fluorescein angiography is an appropriate consideration. However, carotid angiography is not advisable in the presence of a normal ultrasound and CT.

Retinopathy is diagnosed by an ophthalmologist or an optometrist during eye examination. Stereoscopic fundus photography is the gold standard for the diagnosis of retinopathy. Dilated fundoscopy, or direct visualization of the fundus, has been shown to be effective as well.

In general, BRVO has a good prognosis: after 1 year 50–60% of eyes have been reported to have a final VA of 20/40 or better even without any treatment. With time the dramatic picture of an acute BRVO becomes more subtle, hemorrhages fade so that the retina can look almost normal. Collateral vessels develop to help drain the affected area.

A retinal haemorrhage is generally diagnosed by using an ophthalmoscope or fundus camera in order to examine the inside of the eye. A fluorescent dye is often injected into the patient's bloodstream beforehand so the administering ophthalmologist can have a more detailed view of the blood vessels in the retina.

The fluorescent dye can have dangerous side effects: see Fluorescein

If the diagnostic workup reveals a systemic disease process, directed therapies to treat that underlying cause should be initiated. If the amaurosis fugax is caused by an atherosclerotic lesion, aspirin is indicated, and a carotid endarterectomy considered based on the location and grade of the stenosis. Generally, if the carotid artery is still patent, the greater the stenosis, the greater the indication for endarterectomy. "Amaurosis fugax appears to be a particularly favorable indication for carotid endarterectomy. Left untreated, this event carries a high risk of stroke; after carotid endarterectomy, which has a low operative risk, there is a very low postoperative stroke rate." However, the rate of subsequent stroke after amaurosis is significantly less than after a hemispheric TIA, therefore there remains debate as to the precise indications for which a carotid endarterectomy should be performed. If the full diagnostic workup is completely normal, patient observation is recommended.

Several other diseases can result in retinopathy that can be confused with hypertensive retinopathy. These include diabetic retinopathy, retinopathy due to autoimmune disease, anemia, radiation retinopathy, and central retinal vein occlusion.

Telemedicine programs are available that allow primary care clinics to take images using specially designed retinal imaging equipment which can then be shared electronically with specialists at other locations for review. In 2009, Community Health Center, Inc. implemented a telemedicine retinal screening program for low-income patients with diabetes as part of those patients annual visits at the Federally Qualified Health Center.

A major aim of treatment is to prevent, limit, or reverse target organ damage by lowering the person's high blood pressure to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and death. Treatment with antihypertensive medications may be required to control the high blood pressure.

The central retinal vein is the venous equivalent of the central retinal artery and, like that blood vessel, it can suffer from occlusion (central retinal vein occlusion, also CRVO), similar to that seen in ocular ischemic syndrome. Since the central retinal artery and vein are the sole source of blood supply and drainage for the retina, such occlusion can lead to severe damage to the retina and blindness, due to ischemia (restriction in blood supply) and edema (swelling).

It can also cause glaucoma.

Nonischemic CRVO is the milder form of the disease. It may progress to the more severe ischemic type.

Retinal haemorrhages, especially mild ones not associated with chronic disease, will normally resorb without treatment. Laser surgery is a treatment option which uses a laser beam to seal off damaged blood vessels in the retina. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) drugs like Avastin and Lucentis have also been shown to repair retinal haemorrhaging in diabetic patients and patients with haemorrhages associated with new vessel growth.

The diagnosis usually starts with a dilated examination of the retina, followed with confirmation by optical coherence tomography and fluorescein angiography. The angiography test will usually show one or more fluorescent spots with fluid leakage. In 10%-15% of the cases these will appear in a "classic" smoke stack shape. Differential diagnosis should be immediately performed to rule out retinal detachment, which is a medical emergency.

A clinical record should be taken to keep a timeline of the detachment. An Amsler grid can be useful in documenting the precise area of the visual field involved. The affected eye will sometimes exhibit a refractive spectacle prescription that is more far-sighted than the fellow eye due to the decreased focal length caused by the raising of the retina.

Indocyanine green angiography can be used to assess the health of the retina in the affected area which can be useful in making a treatment decision.

In order to treat acute limb ischaemia there are a series of things that can be done to determine where the occlusion is located, the severity, and what the cause was. To find out where the occlusion is located one of the things that can be done is simply a pulse examination to see where the heart rate can be detected and where it stops being sensed. Also there is a lower body temperature below the occlusion as well as paleness. A Doppler evaluation is used to show the extent and severity of the ischaemia by showing flow in smaller arteries. Other diagnostical tools are duplex ultrasonography, computed tomography angiography (CTA), and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA). The CTA and MRA are used most often because the duplex ultrasonography although non-invasive is not precise in planning revascularization. CTA uses radiation and may not pick up on vessels for revascularization that are distal to the occlusion, but it is much quicker than MRA. In treating acute limb ischaemia time is everything.

In the worst cases acute limb ischaemia progresses to critical limb ischaemia, and results in death or limb loss. Early detection and steps towards fixing the problem with limb-sparing techniques can salvage the limb. Compartment syndrome can occur because of acute limb ischaemia because of the biotoxins that accumulate distal to the occlusion resulting in edema.

If caught early, the neovascularization can be reversed with prompt pan retinal photocoagulation (PRP), or injection of anti-VEGF medications with subsequent PRP. The injection blocks the direct effect of VEGF and acts more quickly but will wear off in about 6 weeks. PRP has a slower onset of action but can last permanently. Once the neovascularization has been longstanding, the new vessels recruit fibrous tissue, and as this forms and contracts, the angle can be permanently damaged, and will not respond to treatment. If this occurs, then surgical intervention is required to reduce the pressure (such as a glaucoma drainage implant)

The gold standard for measuring endothelial function is angiography with acetylcholine injection. Previously, this was not done outside of research because of the invasive and complex nature of the procedure. As mentioned above, the use of acetylcholine injections to test vasodilation is now safely used for procedures where arterial catheterization is employed (this method is less frequently used though, so overall acetylcholine is not used very often in this way).

A noninvasive method to measure endothelial dysfunction is % Flow Mediated Dilation (FMD) as measured by Brachial Artery Ultrasound Imaging (BAUI). Current measurements of endothelial function via FMD vary due to technical and physiological factors. For example, FMD is largely affected by hormones, especially for women. FMD values can differ for the same woman if she is in different phases of her menstrual cycle during the time of measurement. When using this technique on people who suffer from things like heart failure, renal failure, or hypertension, their increased sympathetic tone can often falsify the results. Furthermore, a negative correlation between percent flow mediated dilation and baseline artery size is recognised as a fundamental scaling problem, leading to biased estimates of endothelial function. For research on FMD an ANCOVA approach to adjusting FMD for variation in baseline diameter is more appropriate. Another challenge of FMD is variability across centers and the requirement of highly qualified technicians to perform the procedure.

A non-invasive, FDA-approved device for measuring endothelial function that works by measuring Reactive Hyperemia Index (RHI) is Itamar Medical's EndoPAT™. It has shown an 80% sensitivity and 86% specificity to diagnose coronary artery disease when compared against the gold standard, acetylcholine angiogram. This results suggests that this peripheral test reflects the physiology of the coronary endothelium. Endopat has been tested in several clinical trials at multiple centers (including major cohort studies such as the Framingham Heart Study, the Heart SCORE study, and the Gutenberg Health Study). The results from clinical trials have shown that EndoPAT™ is useful for risk evaluation, stratification and prognosis of getting major cardiovascular events (MACE).

Since NO maintains low tone and high compliance of the small arteries at rest a reduction of age-dependent small artery compliance is a marker for endothelial dysfunction that is associated with both functional and structural changes in the microcirculation that are predictive of subsequent morbid events Small artery compliance or stiffness can be assessed simply and at rest and can be distinguished from large artery stiffness by use of pulsewave analysis with the CV Profilor.

Ocular ischemic syndrome is the constellation of ocular signs and symptoms secondary to severe, chronic arterial hypoperfusion to the eye. Amaurosis fugax is a form of acute vision loss caused by reduced blood flow to the eye; it may be a warning sign of an impending stroke, as both stroke and retinal artery occlusion can be caused by thromboembolism due to atherosclerosis elsewhere in the body (such as coronary artery disease and especially carotid atherosclerosis). Consequently, those with transient blurring of vision are advised to urgently seek medical attention for a thorough evaluation of the carotid artery. Anterior segment ischemic syndrome is a similar ischemic condition of anterior segment usually seen in post-surgical cases. Retinal artery occlusion (such as central retinal artery occlusion or branch retinal artery occlusion) leads to rapid death of retinal cells, thereby resulting in severe loss of vision.

Smith (2015) conducted a study that looked into specific biological markers that correlate to Moyamoya disease. Some of the categories of these biomarkers include phenotypes - conditions commonly related to Moyamoya, radiographical markers for the diagnosis of Moyamoya, and proteins as well as cellular changes that occur in cases of Moyamoya.

Similar to Moyamoya Disease, there are conditions that are closely associated with Moyamoya Syndrome. Some of the more common medical conditions that are closely associated with Moyamoya Syndrome include trisomy 21 (Down's Syndrome), sickle cell disease, and neurofibromatosis type 1. There is also evidence that identifies hyperthyroidism and congenital dwarfing syndromes as two of the more loosely associated syndromes that correlate with the possibility of being diagnosed with Moyamoya Disease later in life.

There is also research that has shown that certain radiographic biomarkers that lead to the diagnosis of Moyamoya Disease have been identified. The specific radiographic markers are now considered an acceptable key component to Moyamoya Disease and have been added to the INternational Classification of Diseases (ICD). These biomarkers of Moyamoya are "stenosis of the distal ICA's up to and including the bifurcation, along with segments of the proximal ACA and MCA...dilated basal collateral vessels must be present" Some other common findings that have not been added to the classification index of those with Moyamoya Disease which are found using radiography involve very distinct changes in the vessels of the brain. These changes include newly formed vessels made to compensate for another change noted, ischemia and cerebrovascular reserve, both found on MRI. Functional changes include evidence of ischemia in vessels of the brain (ICA, ACA, MCA, specifically). It is important to also note that the radiographic biomarkers, in order to be classified as Moyamoya Disease, all findings must be bilateral. If this is not the case and the findings are unilateral, it is diagnosed as Moyamoya Syndrome.

There are also several protein biomarkers that have been linked to the Moyamoya Disease diagnosis. Although the sample size of the studies performed are small due to the rarity of the disease, the findings are indicative of a correlation between the disease and several specific protein biomarkers. Other studies have confirmed the correlation of Moyamoya and adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) being increased as compared to normal vascular function counterparts Furthermore, it has been concluded that the localization of inflammatory cells suggests that the inflammation stimulus iteself may be responsible for the proliferation and occlusion in the ICA, ACA, and MCA found in those with Moyamoya Disease.

This condition is often associated with diabetes in advanced proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Other conditions causing rubeosis iridis include central retinal vein occlusion, ocular ischemic syndrome, and chronic retinal detachment.

Diagnosis is based on the demonstration of vascular lesions in large and middle-sized vessels on angiography, CT scan, magnetic resonance angiography or FDG PET. FDG PET can help in diagnosis of active inflammation not just in patients with active Takayasu arteritis prior to treatment but also in addition in relapsing patients receiving immunosuppressive agents.

Contrast angiography has been the gold standard. The earliest detectable lesion is a local narrowing or irregularity of the lumen. This may develop into stenosis and occlusion. The characteristic finding is the presence of "skip lesions," where stenosis or aneurysms alternate with normal vessels. Angiography provides information on vessel anatomy and patency but does not provide information on the degree of inflammation in the wall.

The age at onset helps to differentiate Takayasu's arteritis from other types of large vessel vasculitis. For example, Takaysu's arteritis has an age of onset of 60 years.

Takayasu arteritis is not associated with ANCA, rheumatoid factor, ANA, and anticardiolipin antibodies.