There are solutions available to cover and protect the elbow joint.

FNA and surgery is often not recommended, these can introduce infection and the hygroma will return larger. Donut bandage and soft bedding are key to treating. In the past it was common for veterinarians to treat hygromas by aspiration (using a syringe and drawing the fluid out) or surgically placing a drain. This can address the symptom, but does not treat the cause of the hygroma. In addition any incision at a joint can be difficult to close and may result in an open sore. Consequently, the recommended treatment of choice for most hygromas is no longer aspiration or surgery, but commercially available elbow pads made for the treatment of this condition.

Diagnosis is by examination. A Baker's cyst is easier to see from behind with the patient standing with knees fully extended. It is most easily palpated (felt) with the knee partially flexed. Diagnosis is confirmed by ultrasonography, although if needed and there is no suspicion of a popliteal artery aneurysm then aspiration of synovial fluid from the cyst may be undertaken with care. An MRI image can reveal presence of a Baker's cyst.

An infrequent but potentially life-threatening complication, which may need to be excluded by blood tests and ultrasonography, is a deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Quick assessment of the possibility of DVT may be required where a Baker's cyst has compressed vascular structures, causing leg edema, as this sets up conditions for a DVT to develop.

A burst cyst commonly causes calf pain, swelling and redness that may mimic thrombophlebitis.

Osteochondromas are often asymptomatic and may not cause any kind of discomfort. They are often found accidentally when an X-ray is done for an unrelated reason.

- X-rays are the first tests performed that characterize a lesion. They show a clear picture of dense structures of bones, and will also indicate bone growth pertaining to osteochondroma.

- Computed Tomography (CT) scan can identify the bony lesion in great details and show the presence of calcification. These tests also provide great details, especially in soft tissues with the aide of cross-sectional images.

- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is the most accurate method for detecting bone masses in symptomatic cases to depict precise morphology of a tumor. It is used to verify if the palpable mass is continuous with the cortex of the affected bone and to differentiate an osteochondroma from other lesions on the surface of the bone. MRI can also be used to look for cartilage on the surface of tumor and can depict any vascular complications caused by the tumor. An MRI can identify tumors of the spinal column and is often used to diagnose low grade osteosarcoma.

- Ultrasound is done if aneurysms or pseudoaneurysms and venous or arterial thrombosis is suspected. Ultrasound is an accurate method for examining the cartilaginous cap of the osteochondroma. It is also a way of pinpointing bursitis. However, it cannot be used to predict if the growth of tumor is inward in regards to the cap.

- Angiography is used to detect vascular lesions caused by osteochondroma due to ossified cartilaginous cap. It is also used to characterize malignant transformation lesions through neovascularity.

- Clinical testing such as sequence analysis can be done of the entire coding regions of both "EXT1" and "EXT2" to detect mutations.

- A biopsy of the tissue sample of the tumor can also be taken to check for cancer.

Tests for osteochondroma can also identify diseases such as secondary peripheral chondrosarcoma and Multiple osteochondromatosis. In large, secondary chondrosarcoma arises at the site of osteochondroma due to increased thickness of the cartilage cap indicating potential malignant transformation. The symptoms of multiple osteochondromatosis are similar to solitary osteochondroma, but they are often more severe. Painless bumps can arise at the site of tumor and pain and other discomforts can also take place if pressure is put on the soft tissues, nerves, or blood vessels. Dysplasia Epiphysealis Hemimelica (DEH) or Trevor's disease and metachondromatosis (MC) are considered differential diagnosis of both solitary and hereditary osteochondromas. DEH is described as a type of over growth at one or more epiphyses. Similar to osteochondroma, DEH is diagnosed prior to 15 years of age and the growth of lesions end at puberty, when the growth plates close. Metachondromatosis is a rare disorder that exhibit symptoms of both multiple osteochondromas and enchondromas in children and is also inherited in autosomal dominant mode.

Osteochondromas are benign lesions and do not affect life expectancy. Complete excision of osteochondroma is curative and the reoccurrences take place when the removal of tumor is incomplete. Multiple reoccurrences in a well-excised lesion indicate that it may be malignant. The risk of malignant transformation takes place in 1–5% of individuals. If any symptoms of cancerous tumor takes place, then the patient should be evaluated by a bone specialist. No treatment is necessary for Solitary osteochondromas that are asymptomatic. Treatments for solitary osteochondroma are careful observation over time and taking regular x-rays to monitor any changes in the tumor. If the lesion is causing pain with activity, nerve or vessel impingement, or if the bone growth has fully matured and the presence of a large cartilage cap is prominent, then it is advised that the tumor be surgically removed.

Osteochondromas have a low rate of malignancy (<1%) and resection of the tumor is suggested if symptoms such as pain, limitation of movement, or impingement on nerves or vessels occur. Resection of the tumor also takes place when the tumor increases in size and progresses towards malignancy. During surgical resection, the entire lesion along with the cartilaginous cap should be removed to minimize any chances of reoccurrences. Surgical treatment becomes the sole treatment of choice if common complications such as fractures, symptoms of peripheral nerves such as paresthesia, paraplegia, peroneal neuropathy, and upper limb neuropathy take place. A prophylactic resection is suggested if the lesion lies next to a vessel.

Depending on the size and location of the tumor, the time it takes to return to normal daily activities varies between individuals. Limitation on some activities is advised if pain or discomfort persists after surgical excision.

Baker's cysts usually require no treatment unless they are symptomatic. It is very rare that the symptoms are actually coming from the cyst. In most cases, there is another disorder in the knee (arthritis, meniscal (cartilage) tear, etc.) that is causing the problem. Initial treatment should be directed at correcting the source of the increased fluid production. Often rest and leg elevation are all that is needed. If necessary, the cyst can be aspirated to reduce its size, then injected with a corticosteroid to reduce inflammation. Surgical excision is reserved for cysts that cause a great amount of discomfort to the patient. A ruptured cyst is treated with rest, leg elevation, and injection of a corticosteroid into the knee.

Baker's cysts in children, unlike in older people, nearly always disappear with time, and rarely require excision.

Ice pack therapy may sometimes be an effective way of controlling the pain related to Baker's cyst. Heat is also commonly used. A knee brace can offer support giving the feel of stability in the joint.

Rest and specific exercise

Many activities can put strain on the knee, and cause pain in the case of Baker's cyst. Avoiding activities such as squatting, kneeling, heavy lifting, climbing, and even running can help prevent pain. Despite this, some exercises can help relieve pain, and a physiotherapist may instruct on stretching and strengthening the quadriceps and/or the patellar ligament.

Abdominocentesis, or the extraction of fluid from the peritoneum, can be useful in assessing the state of the intestines. Normal peritoneal fluid is clear, straw-colored, and of serous consistency, with a total nucleated cell count of less than 5000 cells/microliter (24–60% which are neutrophils) and a total protein of 2.5 g/dL.

Abdominocentesis allows for the evaluation of red and white blood cells, hemoglobin concentration, protein levels, and lactate levels. A high lactate in abdominal fluid suggests intestinal death and necrosis, usually due to strangulating lesion, and often indicates the need for surgical intervention. A strangulating lesion may produce high levels of red blood cells, and a serosangionous fluid containing blood and serum. White blood cell levels may increase if there is death of intestine that leads to leakage of intestinal contents, which includes high levels of bacteria, and a neutrophil to monocyte ratio greater than or equal to 90% is suggestive of a need for surgery. "High" nucleated cell counts (15,000-800,000 cells/microliter depending on the disease present) occur with horses with peritonitis or abdominal abscesses. The protein level of abdominal fluid can give information as to the integrity of intestinal blood vessels. High protein (> 2.5 mg/dL) suggests increased capillary permeability associated with peritonitis, intestinal compromise, or blood contamination. Horses with gastrointestinal rupture will have elevated protein the majority of the time (86.4%) and 95.7% will have bacteria present. Occasionally, with sand colic, it is possible to feel the sand with the tip of the needle.

Clinical analysis is not necessarily required to analyze the fluid. Simple observation of color and turbidity can be useful in the field.

- Sanguinous fluid indicates an excess of red blood cells or hemoglobin, and may be due to leakage of the cells through a damaged intestinal wall, splenic puncture during abdominocentesis, laceration of abdominal viscera, or contamination from a skin capillary.

- Cloudy fluid is suggestive of an increased number of cells or protein.

- White fluid indicates chylous effusion.

- Green fluid indicates either gastrointestinal rupture or enterocentesis, and a second sample should be drawn to rule out the latter. Gastrointestinal rupture produces a color change in peritoneal fluid in 85.5% of cases.

- Colorless (dilute) peritoneal fluid, especially in large quantities, can indicate ascites or uroperitoneum (urine in the abdomen).

- Large amount of fluid can indicate acute peritonitis.

Gastroscopy, or endoscopic evaluation of the stomach, is useful in chronic cases of colic suspected to be caused by gastric ulcers, gastric impactions, and gastric masses. A 3-meter scope is required to visualize the stomach of most horses, and the horse must be fasted prior to scoping.

Diagnosis of lymphoid tumors in poultry is complicated due to multiple etiological agents capable of causing very similar tumors. It is not uncommon that more than one avian tumor virus can be present in a chicken, thus one must consider both the diagnosis of the disease/tumors (pathological diagnosis) and of the virus (etiological diagnosis). A step-wise process has been proposed for diagnosis of Marek’s disease which includes (1) history, epidemiology, clinical observations and gross necropsy, (2) characteristics of the tumor cell, and (3) virological characteristics

The demonstration of peripheral nerve enlargement along with suggestive clinical signs in a bird that is around three to four months old (with or without visceral tumors) is highly suggestive of Marek's disease. Histological examination of nerves reveals infiltration of pleomorphic neoplastic and inflammatory lymphocytes. Peripheral neuropathy should also be considered as a principal rule-out in young chickens with paralysis and nerve enlargement without visceral tumors, especially in nerves with interneuritic edema and infiltration of plasma cells.

The presence of nodules on the internal organs may also suggest Marek's disease, but further testing is required for confirmation. This is done through histological demonstration of lymphomatous infiltration into the affected tissue. A range of leukocytes can be involved, including lymphocytic cell lines such as large lymphocyte, lymphoblast, primitive reticular cells, and occasional plasma cells, as well as macrophage and plasma cells. The T cells are involved in the malignancy, showing neoplastic changes with evidence of mitosis. The lymphomatous infiltrates need to be differentiated from other conditions that affect poultry including lymphoid leukosis and reticuloendotheliosis, as well as an inflammatory event associated with hyperplastic changes of the affected tissue.

Key clinical signs as well as gross and microscopic features that are most useful for differentiating Marek’s disease from lymphoid leukosis and reticuloendotheliosis include (1) Age: MD can affect birds at any age, including 5% in unvaccinated flocks; (4) Potential nerve enlargement; (5) Interfollicular tumors in the bursa of Fabricius; (6) CNS involvement; (7) Lymphoid proliferation in skin and feather follicles; (8) Pleomorphic lymphoid cells in nerves and tumors; and (9) T-cell lymphomas.

In addition to gross pathology and histology, other advanced procedures used for a definitive diagnosis of Marek’s disease include immunohistochemistry to identify cell type and virus-specific antigens, standard and quantitative PCR for identification of the virus, virus isolation to confirm infections, and serology to confirm/exclude infections.

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) reference laboratories for Marek’s disease include the Pirbright Institute, UK and the USDA Avian Disease and Oncology Laboratory, USA.

Computed tomography (CT) is an imaging modality that produces a 3-dimensional radiograph. A series of plain radiographs are taken in a spiral around the site of interest, and the individual 2-D radiographs are converted into a 3-D image by a computer. The image may be manipulated to view in different planes, such as cross-section, making it possible to see an injury from multiple perspectives and improving diagnostic capabilities when compared to plain radiographs. Like plain radiographs, CT is not as useful for soft tissue lesions when compared to boney lesions. However, CT requires general anesthesia, and is more costly and less available than plain radiographs, limiting its use in general practice. CT provides a large amount of data with exceptional speed, taking only seconds to minutes to complete. When compared to MRI, it is not only significantly faster (MRI takes 1–2 hours to produce an image), but also less expensive. Its combination of speed and imaging capabilities makes it beneficial for use prior to orthopedic surgery, especially in the case of complicated fractures, as it allows for visualization from all sides so that the surgeon may determine the best approach and method of correction prior to cutting. Upon completion of the CT, the horse may be rolled straight into the surgery suite for immediate surgical treatment.

Lymphoid leucosis is a disease that affects chickens, caused by the retrovirus "Avian leukosis virus".

It is a neoplastic disease caused by a virus, which may take the form of a tumor of the bursa of Fabricius and may metastasize to other tissues of the chicken and cause enlargement and swelling of the abdomen.

Nuclear scintigraphy, or the "bone scan," involves injecting a radioactive substance, often technetium-99, into the horse and then measuring uptake, which is strongest in the areas of rapid bone remodeling. The bone scan is often useful for lameness that can’t be easily localized to one area, that affects multiple limbs, or lameness that is thought to originate in areas not easily imaged by other means, such as the vertebral column. Although it provides localization for lameness, it does not give a definitive diagnosis. The availability of this modality is more limited relative to radiographs and ultrasound, and usually requires referral to a secondary care facility. Additionally, the horse must stay for a short period of time until it is no longer radioactive. It is relatively non-invasive, requiring an initial injection of the radioisotope, and sedation throughout the procedure.

The bone scan offers several advantages over traditional radiographs. In some cases, it may be more sensitive due to the fact that some lesions are only apparent on radiographs after they have become chronic. The bone scan allows imaging of the pelvis, vertebral column, and upper limbs, which are areas that are usually poorly imaged by radiographs on the adult horse, due to their size. It also allows some evaluation of soft tissue, which is generally not imaged well by radiographs.

Symptoms include enlargement of abdomen, bursa, weight loss, weakness and emaciation, and depression. The disease is more likely to affect chicken around five to eight months of age who are more vulnerable. Green diarrhea tends to develops at the terminal stage.

If severe pain persists after the first 24hours it is recommended that an individual consult with a professional who can make a diagnosis and implement a treatment plan so the patient can return to everyday activities (Flegel, 2004). These are some of the tools that a professional can use to help make a full diagnosis;

Nerve conduction studies may also be used to localize nerve dysfunction ("e.g.", carpal tunnel syndrome), assess severity, and help with prognosis.

Electrodiagnosis also helps differentiate between myopathy and neuropathy.

Ultimately, the best method of imaging soft tissue is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), though it is cost-prohibitive and carries a high false positive rate.

Medical doctors and dermatologists can still misdiagnose this rash as many are unfamiliar with parasitism, not trained in it, or if they do consider it, cannot see the mites.

Different methods for detection are recognized for different acariasis infections. Human acariasis with mites can occur in the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, urinary tracts and other organs which not have been well-studied. For intestinal acariasis with symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and phohemefecia (is this hemafecia?), human acariasis is diagnosed by detection of mites in stools. For pulmonary acariasis, the presence of mites in sputum is determined by identifying the presence and number of mites in the sputum of patients with respiratory symptoms. Both physical and chemical methods for liquefaction of sputum have been developed.

Because wear on the hip joint traces to the structures that support it (the posture of the legs, and ultimately, the feet), proper fitting shoes with adequate support are important to preventing GTPS. For someone who has flat feet, wearing proper orthotic inserts and replacing them as often as recommended are also important preventive measures.

Strength in the core and legs is also important to posture, so physical training also helps to prevent GTPS. But it is equally important to avoid exercises that damage the hip.

Lumbar puncture should always be done is cases of suspected meningitis. In cases of eosiniphilc meningitis it will rarely produce worms even when they are present in the CSF, because they tend to cling to the end of nerves. Larvae are present in the CSF in only 1.9-10% of cases. However, as a case of eosiniphilic meningitis progresses, intracranial pressure and eosiniphil counts should rise. Increased levels of eosinophils in the CSF is a trademark of the eosiniphilic meningitis.

A doctor may begin the diagnosis by asking the patient to stand on one leg and then the other, while observing the effect on the position of the hips. Palpating the hip and leg may reveal the location of the pain, and range-of-motion tests can help to identify its source.

X-rays, ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging may reveal tears or swelling. But often these imaging tests do not reveal any obvious abnormality in patients with documented GTPS.

Brain lesions, with invasion of both gray and white matter, can be seen on a CT or MRI. However MRI findings tend to be inconclusive, and usually include nonspecific lesions and ventricular enlargement. Sometimes a hemorrhage, probably produced by migrating worms, is present and of diagnostic value.

Vaccination is the only known method to prevent the development of tumors when chickens are infected with the virus. However, administration of vaccines does not prevent transmission of the virus, i.e., the vaccine is not sterilizing. However, it does reduce the amount of virus shed in the dander, hence reduces horizontal spread of the disease. Marek's disease does not spread vertically. The vaccine was introduced in 1970 and the scientist credited with its development is Dr. Ben Roy Burmester and Dr. Frank J Siccardi. Before that, Marek's disease caused substantial revenue loss in the poultry industries of the United States and the United Kingdom. The vaccine can be administered to one-day-old chicks through subcutaneous inoculation or by "in ovo" vaccination when the eggs are transferred from the incubator to the hatcher. "In ovo" vaccination is the preferred method, as it does not require handling of the chicks and can be done rapidly by automated methods. Immunity develops within two weeks.

The vaccine originally contained the antigenically similar turkey herpesvirus, which is serotype 3 of MDV. However, because vaccination does not prevent infection with the virus, the Marek's disease virus has evolved increased virulence and resistance to this vaccine. As a result, current vaccines use a combination of vaccines consisting of HVT and gallid herpesvirus type 3 or an attenuated MDV strain, CVI988-Rispens (ATCvet code: ).

In addition to history and exam, it has been recommended to perform projectional radiography of the neck, chest, shoulder, and thoracic inlet to rule out structural abnormalities such as malunited or greenstick fractures. Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are rarely indicated, but may be useful to rule out certain diagnoses if suspected, such as neurofibromatosis-related injury, intervertebral disc disorder, radiculopathy, and tumors.

Bunion can be diagnosed and analyzed by plain projectional radiography. The "hallux valgus angle" (HVA) is the angle between the longitudinal axes of the proximal phalanx and the first metatarsal bone of the big toe. It is considered abnormal if greater than 15–18°. The following HVA angles can also be used to grade the severity of hallux valgus:

- Mild: 15–20°

- Moderate: 21–39°

- Severe: ≥ 40°

The "intermetatarsal angle" (IMA) is the angle between the longitudinal axes of the first and second metatarsal bones, and is normally less than 9°. The IMA angle can also grade the severity of hallux valgus as:

- Mild: 9–11°

- Moderate: 12–17°

- Severe: ≥ 18°

The prognosis for a horse with navicular syndrome is guarded. Many times the horse does not return to its former level of competition. Others are retired. Eventually all horses with the syndrome will need to lessen the strenuousness of their work, but with proper management, a horse with navicular syndrome can remain useful for some time.

Although infection of avian reovirus is spread worldwide, it is rarely the sole cause of a disease. For chickens, the most common manifestation of the disease is joint/limb lameness. Confirming infection of avian reovirus can be detected through an ELISA test by using and observing the expression of σC and σB proteins. However, isolating and identifying reoviruses from tissue samples is very time consuming. Isolation is most successfully attained through inoculation of material into chick embryo cultures or fertile chicken eggs. Inoculation of embryonic eggs through the yolk sac has shown that the virus usually kills the embryos within 5 or 6 days post inoculation. Analyzing the samples, the embryos appeared hemorrhagic and necrotic lesions on the liver were present. (Jones, Onunkwo, 1978). There have also been approaches to identify avian reoviruses molecularly by observing infected tissues with dot-blot hybridization, PCR, and a combination of PCR and RFLP. This combination allows for the reovirus strain to be typed.

This method should be used within the first 48–72 hours after the injury in order to speed up the recovery process.

Heat: Applying heat to the injured area can cause blood flow and swelling to increase.

Alcohol: Alcohol can inhibit your ability to feel if your injury is becoming more aggravated, as well as increase blood flow and swelling.

Re-injury: Avoid any activities that could aggravate the injury and cause further damage.

Massage: Massaging an injured area can promote blood flow and swelling, and ultimately do more damage if done too early.