Foot binding was the custom of applying tight binding to the feet of young girls to modify the shape of their feet. The practice possibly originated among upper class court dancers during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in 10th century China, then became popular among the elite during the Song dynasty and eventually spread to all social classes by the Qing dynasty. Foot binding became popular as a means of displaying status (women from wealthy families, who did not need their feet to work, could afford to have them bound) and was correspondingly adopted as a symbol of beauty in Chinese culture. Foot binding limited the mobility of women, resulting in them walking in a swaying unsteady gait, although some women with bound feet working outdoor had also been reported. The prevalence and practice of foot binding varied in different parts of the country. Feet altered by binding were called lotus feet.

It has been estimated that by the 19th century, 40–50% of all Chinese women may have had bound feet, and up to almost 100% among upper class Han Chinese women. The Manchu Kangxi Emperor tried to ban foot binding in 1664 but failed. In the later part of the 19th century, Chinese reformers challenged the practice but it was not until the early 20th century that foot binding began to die out as a result of anti-foot-binding campaigns. Foot-binding resulted in lifelong disabilities for most of its subjects, and a few elderly Chinese women still survive today with disabilities related to their bound feet.

Bark-binding is a disease in trees, cured by slitting the bark, or cutting it along the grain of the tree.

Since the essential pathology is due to the inability to absorb vitamin B from the bowels, the solution is therefore injection of IV vitamin B. Timing is essential, as some of the side effects of vitamin B deficiency are reversible (such as RBC indices, peripheral RBC smear findings such as hypersegmented neutrophils, or even high levels of methylmalonyl CoA), but some side effects are irreversible as they are of a neurological source (such as tabes dorsalis, and peripheral neuropathy). High suspicion should be exercised when a neonate, or a pediatric patient presents with anemia, proteinuria, sufficient vitamin B dietary intake, and no signs of pernicious anemia.

This is a rare disease with prevalence about 1 in 200,000 to 1 in 600,000. Studies showed that mutations in "CUBN" or "AMN" clustered particularly in the Scandinavian countries and the Eastern Mediterranean regions. Founder effect, higher clinical awareness to IGS, and

frequent consanguineous marriages all play a role in the higher prevalence of IGS among these populations

No treatment is available for most of these disorders. Mannose supplementation relieves the symptoms in PMI-CDG (CDG-Ib) for the most part, even though the hepatic fibrosis may persist. Fucose supplementation has had a partial effect on some SLC35C1-CDG (CDG-IIc or LAD-II) patients.

The term can also be seen in herpetoculture, as this condition can occur in female reptiles. It is inadvisable to attempt to break a reptile egg to remove it from an egg-bound female. This procedure may be done by a veterinarian, who will insert a needle into the egg, and withdraw the contents with a syringe, allowing the egg to collapse and be removed. Non-surgical interventions include administering oxytocin to improve contractions and allow the egg(s) to pass normally. In many cases, egg-bound reptiles must undergo surgery to have stuck eggs removed.

Egg binding in reptiles is quickly fatal if left untreated; therefore, gravid females who become very lethargic and cease feeding need immediate medical treatment in order to treat the potentially life-threatening condition. An episode of the Animal Planet reality show "E-Vet Interns" featured the treatment of an egg-bound turtle named Napoleon. Exotics specialist Dr. Kevin Fitzgerald of Alameda East Veterinary Hospital is shown treating her with oxytocin and then eventually having to resort to surgery with footage of the large number of eggs that were removed. Dr. Fitzgerald was shown explaining to the new interns how dangerous this condition can be for a pet turtle and the need for early veterinary intervention.

Egg binding can occur if an egg is malformed and/or too large, the animal is weakened by illness, improper husbandry, stress, or if hormonal balances are wrong (producing weak contractions). Factors that can contribute to the risk of egg binding include calcium deficiency, breeding animals that are too young or too small, not providing suitable laying areas (leading to deliberate retention of eggs), and overfeeding of species in which clutch size is dependent on food intake (such as Veiled Chameleons).

In the context of behavioral ecology, egg binding can be an important factor in limiting clutch size. Lizards that lay fewer, but larger eggs are at higher risk for egg binding, and so there is selection pressure towards a minimum clutch size. For example, in common side-blotched lizards, females that lay fewer than the average 4–5 eggs per clutch have significantly increased risk of egg binding.

Aside from the effect on fertility globozoospermia is symptomless. People with globozoospermia have normal physical and mental development, normal clinical features and normal hormonal profile.

The development of intracytoplasmic sperm injection made conception a possibility for patients with a variety of male infertility conditions, including globozoospermia. However, fertility rates with this approach are still low, and research is ongoing into how this can be improved.

It has been found that treating globozoospermia with ICSI along with oocyte activation by calcium ionophore (an ion carrier used to increase intracellular calcium is more likely to result in conception than ICSI alone. Another promising treatment area also looks at causing oocyte activation in conjunction with ICSI, this time using spermatic binding-proteins, phospholipase C zeta (PLCζ) and postacrosomal sheath WW domain binding protein (PAWP).

Cinchonism or quinism is a pathological condition caused by an overdose of quinine or quinidine, or their natural source, cinchona bark. Quinine and its derivatives are used medically to treat malaria. In much smaller amounts, quinine is an ingredient of tonic drinks, acting as a bittering agent. Cinchonism can occur from therapeutic doses of quinine, either from one or several large doses. Quinidine (Class 1A anti-arrhythmic) can also cause cinchonism symptoms to develop with as little as a single dose.

The most common problem with bound feet was infection. Despite the amount of care taken in regularly trimming the toenails, they would often in-grow, becoming infected and causing injuries to the toes. Sometimes for this reason the girl's toenails would be peeled back and removed altogether. The tightness of the binding meant that the circulation in the feet was faulty, and the circulation to the toes was almost cut off, so any injuries to the toes were unlikely to heal and were likely to gradually worsen and lead to infected toes and rotting flesh. The necrosis of the flesh would also initially give off a foul odour, and later the smell may come from various microorganisms that colonized the folds.

If the infection in the feet and toes entered the bones, it could cause them to soften, which could result in toes dropping off; although, this was seen as a benefit because the feet could then be bound even more tightly. Girls whose toes were more fleshy would sometimes have shards of glass or pieces of broken tiles inserted within the binding next to her feet and between her toes to cause injury and introduce infection deliberately. Disease inevitably followed infection, meaning that death from septic shock could result from foot-binding, and a surviving girl was more at risk for medical problems as she grew older. It is thought that as many as 10% of girls may have died from gangrene and other infections due to footbinding.

At the beginning of the binding, many of the foot bones would remain broken, often for years. However, as the girl grew older, the bones would begin to heal. Even after the foot bones had healed, they were prone to re-breaking repeatedly, especially when the girl was in her teenage years and her feet were still soft. Bones in the girls' feet would often be deliberately broken again in order to improve the size or the shape of the feet. This was especially the case with the toes, as small toes were especially desirable. Older women were more likely to break hips and other bones in falls, since they could not balance securely on their feet, and were less able to rise to their feet from a sitting position. Other issues that might arise from foot binding included paralysis and muscular atrophy.

In farming, aviculture and animal husbandry, the term egg binding refers to a medical condition in birds or other egg-laying animals, where the female is unable to pass an egg that has formed.

The egg may be stuck near the cloaca, or further inside. Egg binding is a reasonably common, and potentially serious, condition that can lead to infection or damage to internal tissue. The bound egg may be gently massaged out; failing this it may become necessary to break the egg "in situ" and remove it in parts. If broken, the oviduct should be cleaned of shell fragments and egg residue to avoid damage or infection.

There is a specific pattern of N-acetyl amino acid excretion in the urine. The diagnosis can be confirmed by sequencing of the aminoacylase 1 gene.

Puppy pregnancy syndrome is a psychosomatic illness in humans brought on by mass hysteria.

The syndrome is thought to be localized to villages in several states of India, including West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh, and has been reported by tens of thousands of individuals. It is far more prevalent in areas with little access to education.

People suffering from this condition believe that shortly after being bitten by a dog, puppies are conceived within their abdomen. This is said to be especially likely if the dog is sexually excited at the time of the attack. Victims are said to bark like dogs, and have reported being able to see the puppies inside them when looking at water, or hear them growling in their abdomen. It is believed that the victims will eventually die – especially men, who will give birth to their puppies through the penis.

Witch doctors offer oral cures, which they claim will dissolve the puppies, allowing them to pass through the digestive system and be excreted "without the knowledge of the patient".

Doctors in India have tried to educate the public about the dangers of believing in this condition. Most sufferers are referred to psychiatric services, but in rare instances patients fail to take anti-rabies medication in time, thinking that they have puppy pregnancy syndrome and thus the witch doctor's medicine will cure them. This is further compounded by witch doctors stating that their medicine will fail if sufferers seek conventional treatment.

Some psychiatrists believe that the syndrome meets the criteria for a culture-bound disorder.

Possible ethnic differences in physiological pathways for ingested vitamin D, such as the Inuit, may confound across the board recommendations for vitamin D levels. Inuit compensate for lower production of vitamin D by converting more of this vitamin to its most active form.

A Toronto study of young Canadians of diverse ancestry applied a standard of serum 25(OH)D levels that was significantly higher than official recommendations. These levels were described to be 75 nmol/L as "optimal", between 75 nmol/L and 50 nmol/L as "insufficient" and < 50 nmol/L as "deficient". 22% of individuals of European ancestry had 25(OH)D levels less than the 40 nmol/L cutoff, comparable to the values observed in previous studies (40nmol/L is 15 ng/mL). 78% of individuals of East Asian ancestry and 77% of individuals of South Asian ancestry had 25(OH)D concentrations lower than 40 nmol/L. The East Asians in the Toronto sample had low 25(OH)D levels when compared to whites. In a Chinese population at particular risk for esophageal cancer and with the high serum 25(OH)D concentrations have a significantly increased risk of the precursor lesion.

Studies on the South Asians population uniformly point to low 25(OH)D levels, despite abundant sunshine. Rural men around Delhi average 44nmol/L. Healthy Indians seem have low 25(OH)D levels which are not very different from healthy South Asians living in Canada. South Indian patients with ischemic heart disease have serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels which are above 222.5 nmol/l and considered extremely high. Measuring melanin content to assess skin pigmentation showed an inverse relationship with serum 25(OH)D. The uniform occurrence of very low serum 25(OH)D in Indians living in India and Chinese in China does not support the hypothesis that the low levels seen in the more pigmented are due to lack of synthesis from the sun at higher latitudes.

A study of French Canadians found that a significant minority did not maximize ingested serum 25(OH)D for genetic reasons; vitamin D-binding protein polymorphisms explained as much of the variation in circulating 25(OH)D as did total ingestion of vitamin D.

Management of Bleeding Canker of Chestnut is not definitive and treatments are currently being investigated. Because the pathogen can be spread by contaminated tools, cultural practices are important to management. Tools should be cleaned and used with caution after being used on infected trees. Recovery of trees is possible, so management strategies are focused on keeping trees healthy so they can recover. One recommendation is to add fertilizer that contains Potassium phosphate. Soil de-compaction, providing good drainage, and mulching to minimize fluctuation of soil temperature and moisture are all ways to improve or maintain tree health and to manage the pathogen.

Chemical methods can be used to help the tree maintain health and avoid progress of the disease. Management strategies are currently being developed. A study performed in 2015 examined the infection on trees and found that 41 F1 progeny parent tree source had the most promising lines of viability for resistance.

Velvet Blight is a disease that affects the stems, branches, leaves, fruits or trunks of plants and trees. This disease is primarily caused by three fungal species from the genus "Septobasidium": "S. bogoriense", "S. pilosum" and "S. theae".

It is known to affect mainly tea plants ("Thea" genus).

The most studied of these species is "S. bogoriense", most notably due to the work of Ernst Albert Gäumann. "S. bogoriense" is named after the Herbarium Bogoriense (Bogor, West Java, Indonesia) which is the place where it was first identified on the bark of an unspecified tree and named by E. Nyman on June 3, 1898. This species was also listed in Otto Warburg's Monsunia in 1900.

Symptoms of mild cinchonism (which may occur from standard therapeutic doses of quinine) include flushed and sweaty skin, ringing of the ears (tinnitus), blurred vision, impaired hearing, confusion, reversible high-frequency hearing loss, headache, abdominal pain, rashes, drug-induced lichenoid reaction (lichenoid photosensitivity), vertigo, dizziness, dysphoria, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.

Large doses of quinine may lead to severe (but reversible) symptoms of cinchonism: skin rashes, deafness, somnolence, diminished visual acuity or blindness, anaphylactic shock, and disturbances in heart rhythm or conduction, and death from cardiotoxicity (damage to the heart). Quinine may also trigger a rare form of hypersensitivity reaction in malaria patients, termed blackwater fever, that results in massive hemolysis, hemoglobinemia, hemoglobinuria, and kidney failure. Most symptoms of cinchonism (except in severe cases) are reversible and disappear once quinine is withdrawn. Attempted suicide by intake of a large dose of quinine has caused irreversible tunnel vision and very severe visual impairment.

Patients treated with quinine may also suffer from low blood sugar, especially if it is administered intravenously, and hypotension (low blood pressure).

Quinine, like chloroquine, inactivates enzymes in the lysosomes of cells and has an anti-inflammatory effect, hence its use in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. However, inactivation of these enzymes can also cause abnormal accumulation of glycogen and phospholipids in lysosomes, causing toxic myopathy. It is possible this action is the root cause of cinchonism.

The U.S Institute of Medicine has established a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) to protect against vitamin D toxicity. These levels in microgram (mcg or µg) and International Units (IU) for male and female are:

- 0–6 months: 25 µg (1000 IU)

- 7–12 months: 38 µg (1500 IU)

- 1–3 years: 63 µg (2500 IU)

- 4–8 years:75 µg (3000 IU)

- 9+ years:100 µg (4000 IU)

- Pregnant and Lactating: 100 µg (4000 IU)

The recommended dietary allowance is 15 µg/d (600 IU per day; 800 IU for those over 70 years). Overdose has been observed at 1,925 µg/d (77,000 IU per day). Acute overdose requires between 15,000 µg/d (600,000 IU per day) and 42,000 µg/d (1,680,000 IU per day) over a period of several days to months.

There is no consensus on how to treat LID but one of the options is to treat it as an iron-deficiency anemia with ferrous sulfate (Iron(II) sulfate) at a dose of 100 mg x day in two doses (one at breakfast and the other at dinner) or 3 mg x Kg x day in children (also in two doses) during two or three months. The ideal would be to increase the deposits of body iron, measured as levels of ferritin in serum, trying to achieve a ferritin value between 30 and 100 ng/mL. Another clinical study has shown an increase of ferritin levels in those taking iron compared with others receiving a placebo from persons with LID. With ferritin levels higher than 100 ng/mL an increase in infections, etc. has been reported. Another way to treat LID is with an iron rich diet and in addition ascorbic acid or Vitamin C, contained in many types of fruits as oranges, kiwifruits, etc. that will increase 2 to 5-fold iron absorption.

Goldberg–Shprintzen is a condition associated with mutations in "KIAA1279" gene which encodes KIF-binding protein (KBP), a protein that may interact with microtubules and actin filament. KBP may play a key role in cytoskeleton formation and neurite growth.

Hirschsprung's disease may be part of the presentation. Individuals with the syndrome exhibit ocular (ptosis, hyperopia, or megalocornea), cardiac, urogenital (vesicoureteral reflux, multicystic renal dysplasia), and skeletal (oligodontia, scoliosis, high-arched palate) developmental abnormalities.

Dutch elm disease (DED) is caused by a member of the sac fungi (Ascomycota) affecting elm trees, and is spread by elm bark beetles. Although believed to be originally native to Asia, the disease was accidentally introduced into America and Europe, where it has devastated native populations of elms that did not have resistance to the disease. It has also reached New Zealand. The name "Dutch elm disease" refers to its identification in 1921 and later in the Netherlands by Dutch phytopathologists Bea Schwarz and Christine Buisman who both worked with Professor Johanna Westerdijk. The disease affects species in the genera "Ulmus" and "Zelkova", therefore it is not specific to the Dutch elm hybrid.

In all cases of the disease, thorough study of the distribution and intensity should be determined to help choose a management practice that’s cost effective. For example, if the disease is widespread in a pre-commercial stand, destroying the plantation may be the most effective measure. The area can then be replanted with immune or low-susceptible species. Aerial surveying is a viable tool available for use in areas where there are severely damaged systems. Other management tools include:

- Using up to date models to help predict the spread of the disease can help with management choice

- Susceptible species should not be planted within 100 feet of a disease center

- Remove as many infected roots and stumps as possible to avoid inoculation of healthy plants

- Cut all infected trees within the disease center and all uninfected trees within 50 ft of the disease center

- Stumping is an expensive, yet effective measure in gently sloping, high-quality sites with light soils. After an excavator removes the stump, pieces of the root are torn and fragmented so invading soil organisms deter long-term inocula.

- Push-falling is an alternative to post-harvest stumping. Whole trees are pushed over with machinery to expose diseased roots for removal. Push-falling is effective in areas with slopes less than 30 percent and soil textures that are sandy to sandy loam.

- Applications of chemical fumigation (such as chloropicrin) have been unsuccessful in dealing with Laminated root rot.

People with Laron syndrome have strikingly low rates of cancer and diabetes, although they appear to be at increased risk of accidental death due to their stature.

Overexposure to chromium can occur in welders and other workers in the metallurgical industry, persons taking chromium-containing dietary supplements, patients who have received metallic surgical implants, and individuals who ingest chromium salts. Chromium concentrations in whole blood, plasma, serum or urine may be measured to monitor for safety in exposed workers, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims, or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage.

Thousand cankers disease can be spread by moving infected black walnut wood. Trees intended for shipment should be inspected for dieback and cankers and galleries after harvest. G. morbidia or the walnut twig beetle ("Pityophthorus juglandis") are not currently known to be moved with walnut seed . There is currently no chemical therapy or prevention available for the disease making it difficult to control the spread of the disease from the west to the eastern united states. Wood from infected trees can still be used for commercial value, but safety measures such as removing the bark, phloem, and cambium to reduce the risk of spreading the disease with shipment. Quarantines have been put in place in some states to reduce the potential movement of fungus or beetle from that region. On May 17th, 2010, the Director of the Michigan Department of Agriculture issued a quarantine from affected states to protect Michigan’s black walnut ecology and production. Contacting the appropriate entities about possible infections is important to stopping or slowing the spread of thousand cankers disease.