There are a number of control methods to prevent and reduce the Banana Freckle disease. The paper bag method seems to be the most effective way to gain physical control of the pathogen. The infected leaves are the primary source of spores, and placing a bag over the bananas, once harvested, creates a barrier to prevent inoculum from spreading to the fruit.

Some cultural controls include pruning out infectious plant material, planting in pathogen-free fields, and practicing proper sanitation techniques. In the Philippines, pruning and cutting out patches of infected tissue have prevented the spread of the pathogen in the plant during disease outbreaks. General sanitation practices have also reduced the spread of inoculum. When planters failed to maintain sanitary equipment, seeds, and soil, they witnessed severe fruit infections. The more freckles seen on the leaves of the plant, the more the fruit develops symptoms of the disease. Inversely, less freckles corresponded to less disease.

In addition, multiple fungicides have been seen to reduce Banana Freckle disease. In Hawaii, spraying the leaves and fruit with maneb (1 lb./100 gal water plus 4 oz of sticker-spreader) every 2 weeks or once a month throughout the year has remarkably reduced the spread of inoculum. In Taiwan, spraying fungicides, such as phaltan, orthocide, chlorothalonil, dithiocarbamates, and propiconazole, biweekly have produced effective results against the disease. In the Philippines, chemical controls used against Black or Yellow Sigatoka disease have been helpful. These consist of mancozeb, triazoles, tridemorph, and strobilurin. Mancozeb seems to be the most effective fungicide against Banana Freckle disease in Hawaii and the Philippines . These fungicides do not eliminate the pathogen completely, but they reduce the inoculum levels and eventually reduce yield loss.

Lastly, eradication of infected plants can prevent further infection of other fruit around the area.

There is no resistance to Citrus Black Spot and once a tree has been infected there is no known cure causing tree removal to be the best option. Both Federal and State governments have recommended the following preventative measures.

To control "Guignardia citriparpa" fungicides like copper and/or strobilurins should be applied monthly from early May to the middle of September (in the northern hemisphere). Applications of the fungicides are recommended in early April (northern hemisphere) if that month has experienced more rainfall than usual resulting in the ideal conditions for citrus black spot to form.

Table 1. Recommended Chemical Controls for Citrus Black Spot

1)Lower rates can be used on smaller trees. Do not use less than minimum label rate.

2)Mode of action class for citrus pesticides from the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) 20111. Refer to ENY-624, "Pesticide Resistance and Resistance Management," in the 2012 Florida Citrus Pest Management Guide for more details.

3)Do not use more than 4 applications of strobilurin fungicides/season. Do not make more than 2 sequential applications of strobilurin fungicides.

Another method of control is to accelerate the leaf litter decomposition under the trees in citrus groves. Accelerating this decomposition reduces the chance for ascospore inoculation which generally takes place in the middle of March. There are three possible methods to hasten this decomposition. One method is the increase the mircrosprinkler irrigation in the grove to half an hour for at least five days of the week. This form of control should continue for about a month and a half. The second method is to apply urea or ammonium to the leaf litter. The last and final method to accelerate leaf decomposition is to apply lime or calcium carbonate to the litter. Urea, lime, and calcium carbonate reduce the number of fungal structures and spore production. Since the fungus requires wet conditions to thrive, air flow in the citrus grove should be maximized to reduce leaf wetness.

Along with these methods it is also important to get rid of debris such as fallen fruit or twigs in a manner that reduces the chances of infecting other plants. Citrus Black Spot can colonize and reproduce on dead twigs. To dispose of citrus debris it should either be heated to a minimum of 180℉ for two hours, incinerated, buried in a landfill, or fed to livestock. Plant trash should be moved with caution if at all to avoid spreading the infectious ascospores. Any trees that are infected with citrus black spot should be removed from the grove and disposed of. These trees must be removed because those that are declining and stressed will often have off season bloom. If there is more than one age of fruit present on the tree, it is possible for the asexual spores on the fruit to be transferred to new fruit, intensifying the disease. This off season blooming is often more problematic with Valencia oranges when old and new crops overlap.

There are very few things that can be done to control the spread of bacterial soft rots, and the most effective of them have to do with simply keeping sanitary growing practices.

Storage warehouses should be removed of all plant debris, and the walls and floors disinfected with either formaldehyde or copper sulfate between harvests. Injury to plant tissues should be avoided as much as possible, and the humidity and temperature of the storage facility should be kept low using an adequate ventilation system. These procedures have proven themselves to be very effective in the control of storage soft rot of potato in Wisconsin.

It also helps if plants are planted in well-drained soils, at intervals appropriate for adequate ventilation between plants. Few varieties are resistant to the disease and none are immune, so rotating susceptible plants with non-susceptible ones like cereals is a practice positive to limiting soft rot infection.

The control of specific insect vectors is also a good way of controlling disease spread in the field and in storage. Soil and foliage insecticide treatment helps controls the bugs that frequently cause wounds and disseminate the bacteria.

"F. oxysporum" is a major wilt pathogen of many economically important crop plants. It is a soil-borne pathogen, which can live in the soil for long periods of time, so rotational cropping is not a useful control method. It can also spread through infected dead plant material, so cleaning up at the end of the season is important.

One control method is to improve soil conditions because "F. oxysporum" spreads faster through soils that have high moisture and bad drainage. Other control methods include planting resistant varieties, removing infected plant tissue to prevent overwintering of the disease, using soil and systemic fungicides to eradicate the disease from the soil, flood fallowing, and using clean seeds each year. Applying fungicides depends on the field environment. It is difficult to find a biological control method because research in a greenhouse can have different effects than testing in the field. The best control method found for "F. oxysporum" is planting resistant varieties, although not all have been bred for every forma specialis.

"F. oxysporum" f. sp. "batatas" can be controlled by using clean seed, cleaning up infected leaf and plant material and breeding for resistance. Fungicides can also be used, but are not as effective as the other two because of field conditions during application. Fungicides can be used effectively by dip treating propagation material.

Different races of "F. oxysporum" f. sp. "cubense", Panama disease on banana, can be susceptible, resistant and partially resistant. It can be controlled by breeding for resistance and through eradication and quarantine of the pathogen by improving soil conditions and using clean plant material. Biological control can work using antagonists. Systemic and soil fungicides can also be used.

The main control method for "F. oxysporum" f. sp. "lycopersici", vascular wilt on tomato, is resistance. Other effective control methods are fumigating the infected soil and raising the soil pH to 6.5-7.

The most effective way to control "F. oxysporum" f. sp. "melonis" is to graft a susceptible variety of melon to a resistant root-stock. Resistant cultivars, liming the soil to change soil pH to 6-7, and reducing soil nitrogen levels also help control "F. oxysporum" f. sp. "melonis".

The fungus "Trichoderma viride" is a proven biocontrol agent to control this disease in an environment friendly way.

Fusarium wilt is a common vascular wilt fungal disease, exhibiting symptoms similar to Verticillium wilt. The pathogen that causes Fusarium wilt is "Fusarium oxysporum" ("F. oxysporum"). The species is further divided into forma specialis based on host plant.

Banana Freckle is a disease caused by the fungus "Guignardia musae" (telomorph) or "Phyllosticta musarum" (anamorph). Generally, the causal agent of disease is referred to as Guignardia-Phyllosticta sp. There are several different strains of the fungus that exist to infect different banana varieties around the globe. Symptoms include yellowing of the tissue and formation of small dark brown spots on the leaves and fruit. Within the spots, conidia or pycnidia can be found. Banana Freckle is easily propagated and spread from plant to plant by rain splash and movement of infected tissue or fruit. Management of the disease consists of cutting out infected leaves, the paper bag method, fungicide application, and proper sanitation techniques. This devastating disease is extremely relevant for the major banana exporting countries of the world. In the absence of chemical control, there is about a 78% yield loss. Banana Freckle disease needs to be carefully monitored in order to prevent further spread of the disease.

Citrus Black Spot is a fungal disease caused by Guignardia citricarpa. This Ascomycete fungus affects citrus plants throughout subtropical climates, causing a reduction in both fruit quantity and quality. Symptoms include both fruit and leaf lesions, the latter being critical to inter-tree dispersal. Strict regulation and management is necessary to control this disease since there are currently no citrus varieties that are resistant.

Panama disease is a plant disease of the roots of banana plants. It is a type of Fusarium wilt, caused by the fungal pathogen "Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense" (Foc). The pathogen is resistant to fungicide and cannot be controlled chemically.

During the 1950s, Panama disease wiped out most commercial Gros Michel banana production. The Gros Michel banana was the dominant cultivar of bananas, and the blight inflicted enormous costs and forced producers to switch to other, disease-resistant cultivars. New strains of Panama disease currently threaten the production of today's most popular cultivar, Cavendish.

Growth of the bacteria is possible between 32–90 °F, with the most ideal conditions between 70–80 °F. Post-harvest storage and transportation is difficult for tropical and other warm environments when the air is not properly ventilated during these processes. Higher temperatures and high humidity are ideal growing conditions for the bacteria making ventilation a big priority when trying to combat this disease.

The blotches are cosmetic damage "unacceptable to consumers" and downgrade fruit from premium fresh-market grade to processing use, i.e. reduce its market value, but leaf and fruit development are not affected.

Preventive measures are pruning which allows light and air to enter the tree, to achieve fast drying. Strong growth within the root area dams up moisture and facilitates infection.

A prognostic model called Sooty Blotch RIMpro has been developed, which still awaits validation. Similar to the apple scab model it numerically grades risk and degree of infection and can serve as a warning system. It allows conventional growers to spray more targeted. The parameters for calculation are wetness of leaves, amount of rain fall and temperature.

Conventional orchards that spray fungicides against apple scab, treat soot blotch and flyspeck at the same time. Therefore, the problem is not seen in conventional non-resistant varieties. However, scab-resistant varieties, which are not sprayed frequently show the infection. In organic orchards, spraying 4–5 with lime sulphur or coco soap during the main infectious periods is recommended.

Two external symptoms help characterize Panama disease of banana:

- Yellow leaf syndrome, the yellowing of the border of the leaves which eventually leads to bending of the petiole.

- Green leaf syndrome, which occurs in certain cultivars, marked by the persistence of the green color of the leaves followed by the bending of the petiole as in yellow leaf syndrome. Internally, the disease is characterized by vascular discoloration. This begins in the roots and rhizomes with a yellowing that proceeds to a red or brown color in the pseudostem.

These symptoms often get confused with the symptoms of bacterial wilt of banana, but there are ways to differentiate between the two diseases:

- Fusarium wilt proceeds from older to younger leaves, but bacterial wilt is the opposite.

- Fusarium wilt has no symptoms on the growing buds or suckers, no exudates visible within the plant, and no symptoms in the fruit. Bacterial wilt can be characterized by distorted or necrotic buds, bacterial ooze within the plant, and fruit rot and necrosis.

Once a banana plant is infected, it will continue to grow and any new leaves will be pale in color. Recovery is rare, but if it does occur any new emerging suckers will already be infected and can propagate disease if planted.

"Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense" (Foc) is most prominent in banana and plantain, but some other similar relatives are also susceptible to infection. Different races of the disease are used to classify different major hosts affected by Foc. Race 1 was the initial outbreak which destroyed much of the world's Gros Michel bananas. Cavendish bananas are resistant to race 1, but tropical race 4 (or subtropical race 4) is the classification for Foc which affects Cavendish. Race 2 affects a cooking and dessert banana, Bluggoe.

The most widely used potassium fertilizer is potassium chloride (muriate of potash). Other inorganic potassium fertilizers include potassium nitrate, potassium sulfate, and monopotassium phosphate. Potassium-rich treatments suitable for organic farming include feeding with home-made comfrey liquid, adding seaweed meal, composted bracken, and compost rich in decayed banana peels. Wood ash also has high potassium content. Adequate moisture is necessary for effective potassium uptake; low soil water reduces K uptake by plant roots. Liming acidic soils can increase potassium retention in some soils by reducing leaching; practices that increase soil organic matter can also increase potassium retention.

Potassium deficiency, also known as potash deficiency, is a plant disorder that is most common on light, sandy soils, because potassium ions (K) are highly soluble and will easily leach from soils without colloids. Potassium deficiency is also common in chalky or peaty soils with a low clay content. It is also found on heavy clays with a poor structure.

"Ephelides" describes a freckle which is flat and light brown or red and fades with reduction of sun exposure. Ephelides are more common in those with light complexions, although they are found on people with a variety of skin tones. The regular use of sunblock can inhibit their development.

Liver spots (also known as sun spots and lentigines) look like large freckles, but they form after years of exposure to the sun. Liver spots are more common in older people.

The formation of freckles is triggered by exposure to sunlight. The exposure to UV-B radiation activates melanocytes to increase melanin production, which can cause freckles to become darker and more visible. This means that you may have never developed freckles before, but after extended exposure to sunlight, they may suddenly appear.

Freckles are predominantly found on the face, although they may appear on any skin exposed to the sun, such as arms or shoulders. Heavily distributed concentrations of melanin may cause freckles to multiply and cover an entire area of skin, such as the face. Freckles are rare on infants, and more commonly found on children before puberty.

Upon exposure to the sun, freckles will reappear if they have been altered with creams or lasers and not protected from the sun, but do fade with age in some cases.

Freckles are not a skin disorder, but people with freckles generally have a lower concentration of photo-protective melanin, and are therefore more susceptible to the harmful effects of UV radiation. It is suggested that people whose skin tends to freckle should avoid overexposure to sun and use sunscreen.

The first step in treatment following a bee sting is removal of the stinger itself. The stinger should be removed as quickly as possible without regard to method: studies have shown the amount of venom delivered does not differ whether the sting is pinched or scraped off and even a delay of a few seconds leads to more venom being injected. Once the stinger is removed, pain and swelling should be reduced with a cold compress. A topical anesthetic containing benzocaine will kill pain quickly and menthol is an effective anti-itch treatment. Itching can also be relieved by antihistamine or by a steroid cream.

Many traditional remedies have been suggested for bee stings including damp pastes of tobacco, salt, baking soda, papain, toothpaste, clay, garlic, urine, onions, aspirin or even application of copper coins. As with jellyfish stings, ammonia and ammonia-containing liquids, such as window cleaner, are often suggested as a way to immediately cleanse the skin and remove excess venom, and sweat itself (which also contains small amounts of ammonia) may provide some small relief.

Bee venom is acidic, and these interventions are often recommended to neutralize the venom; however, neutralizing a sting is unlikely to be effective as the venom is injected under the skin and deep into the tissues, where a topically applied alkali is unable to reach, so neutralization is unlikely to occur. In any case, the amount of venom injected is typically very small (between 5 and 50 micrograms of fluid) and placing large amounts of alkali near the sting site is unlikely to produce a perfectly neutral pH to stop the pain. Many people do claim benefit from these home remedies but it is doubtful they have any real physical effect on how much a sting hurts or continues hurting. The effect is probably related to rubbing the area or the mind perceiving benefit. Furthermore, none of these interventions have been proven to be effective in scientific studies and a randomized trial of aspirin paste and topical ice packs showed that aspirin was not effective in reducing the duration of swelling or pain in bee and wasp stings, and significantly increased the duration of redness. The study concluded that ice alone is better treatment for bee and wasp stings than aspirin.

The sting may be painful for a few hours. Swelling and itching may persist for a week. The area should not be scratched as it will only increase the itching and swelling. If swelling persists for over a week or covers an area greater than , medical attention should be sought. Doctors often recommend a tetanus immunization. For about 2 percent of people, a hypersensitivity can develop after being stung, creating a more severe reaction when stung again later. This sensitisation may happen after a single sting, or after a series of stings where they reacted normally. A highly allergic person may suffer anaphylactic shock from certain proteins in the venom, which can be life-threatening and requires emergency treatment. People known to be highly allergic may carry around epinephrine (adrenaline) in the form of a self-injectable EpiPen for the treatment of an anaphylactic shock.

For patients who experience severe or life-threatening reactions to insect stings, allergy injections composed of increasing concentrations of naturally occurring venom may provide protections against future insect stings.

Treatment is predominantly preventive. Avoidance of topical phenols and diets low in tyrosine may help. Replacement and repair of damaged tissue is also possible.

Hydroquinone-induced exogenous ochronosis is an avoidable dermatosis that is exceedingly difficult to treat.

However, some studies show that treatment may be possible with a Q-switched alexandrite (755 nm) laser.

It is recommended that individuals with this disorder stop using hydroquinone-containing compounds. It is important to be aware of this as dermatologists may think the symptoms a patient is exhibiting are a melasma, and prescribe a hydroquinone-containing cream.

A bee sting is a sting from a bee (honey bee, bumblebee, sweat bee, etc.). The stings of most of these species can be quite painful, and are therefore keenly avoided by many people.

Bee stings differ from insect bites, and the venom or toxin of stinging insects is quite different. Therefore, the body's reaction to a bee sting may differ significantly from one species to another. In particular, bee stings are acidic, whereas wasp stings are alkali, so the body's reaction to a bee sting may be very different than to that of a wasp sting.

The most aggressive stinging insects are vespid wasps (including bald-faced hornets and other yellow jackets) and hornets (especially the Asian giant hornet). All of these insects aggressively defend their nests.

Although for most people a bee sting is painful but otherwise relatively harmless, in people with insect sting allergy, stings may trigger a dangerous anaphylactic reaction that is potentially deadly. Additionally, honey bee stings release pheromones that prompt other nearby bees to attack.

Liver spots (also known as age spot, solar lentigo, "lentigo senilis", "old age spot", "senile freckle") are es on the skin associated with aging and exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun. They range in color from light brown to red or black and are located in areas most often exposed to the sun, particularly the hands, face, shoulders, arms and forehead, and the scalp if bald.

The spots derive their name from the fact that they were once incorrectly believed to be caused by liver problems, but they are physiologically unrelated to the liver, save for a similar color. From the age of 40 onward the skin is less able to regenerate from sun exposure, and liver spots are very common in this age group, particularly in those who spend time in the sun.

In the overwhelming majority of cases, liver spots pose no threat and require no treatment, though they occasionally have been known to obscure the detection of skin cancer. However, despite being a benign condition, liver spots are sometimes considered unsightly and some people choose to have them removed. This can be done by electrosurgery, laser treatment, cryotherapy, or the use of depigmentation agents, such as hydroquinone, tretinoin, topical cysteamine, azelaic acid or alpha hydroxy acids.

Differently from the melanotic nevi and the verrucous nevi on the skin, age spots change with time in color and in shape. Misrepair-accumulation aging theory proposes a hypothesis on the development of age spots. Firstly, the development of a flat spot is a result of accumulation of aged basal cells. When the skin is aged, some aged cells that contain lipofuscin bodies cannot be removed. An aged cell will affect the functionality of the local tissue and promote the aging of its neighbor cells. By a feedback loop, more and more neighbor cells become aged and lipofuscin-containing. They aggregate and form a spot with an irregular shape. Secondly, protruding of a flat spot is a result of the death of aged cells in the spot and release of lipofuscin bodies. Isolation of the un-digestible lipofuscin bodies in a fibrotic capsule is essential for maintaining the structural integrity of the tissue. Successive encapsulation of dead cells and lipofuscin bodies results in the growth of a spot in three dimensions. The dense lipofuscin bodies in the capsule make a protruding spot soft and dark in color.

To confirm OAS, the suspected food is consumed in a normal way. The period of observation after ingestion and symptoms are recorded. If other co factors like combined foods are required, this is also replicated in the test. For example, if the individual always develops symptoms after eating followed by exercise, then this is replicated in the laboratory.

First dilemma in diagnosis is recognition. As lentigo malignas often present on severely sun-damaged skin, it is frequently found amongst numerous pigmented lesions – thin seborrheic keratoses, lentigo senilis, lentigines. It is difficult to distinguish these lesions with the naked eye alone, and even with some difficulty using dermatoscopy. As the lentigo maligna is often very large, it often merges with, or encompasses other skin tumors – such as lentigines, melanocytic nevi, and seborrheic keratosis.

Second dilemma is the biopsy technique. Even though excisional biopsy (removing the entire lesion) is ideal, and advocated by pathologists; practical reason dictates that this should not be done. These tumors are often large and presenting on the facial area. Excision of such large tumor would be absolutely contraindicated if the lesion's identity is uncertain. The preferred method of diagnosis is by using a punch biopsy, allowing the physician to sample multiple full thickness pieces of the tumor at multiple sites. While one section of the tumor might show benign melanocytic nevus, another section might show features concerning for severe cellular atypia. When cellular atypia is noted, a pathologist might indicate that the entire lesion should be removed. It is at this point that one can comfortablly remove the entire lesion, and thus confirm the final diagnosis of lentigo maligna. The size of the punch biopsy can vary from 1 mm to 2 mm, but it is preferable to use a punch 1.5 mm or larger. Representative samples of the most atypical parts of the nevus should be biopsied, often guided by dermatoscopy.

Many people have no idea that they have OAS. However, if swelling, tingling or pain develops while eating certain foods, then it is wise to see an allergy specialist. Before a diagnosis can be made, keep a food diary. This is important as the physician can then perform an allergy test. Before testing is started, a comprehensive history is obtained so that random testing is avoided. The diagnosis of OAS may involve skin prick tests, blood tests, patch tests or oral challenges. When OAS is suspected, the oral challenge test is ideal.