X-ray of the affected wrist is required if a fracture is suspected. Anteroposterior (AP), lateral, and oblique views can be used together to describe the fracture. X-ray of the uninjured wrist should also be taken to determine if there are any normal anatomic variations. Investigation of a potential distal radial fracture includes assessment of the angle of the joint surface on lateral X-ray (volar/dorsal tilt), the loss of length of the radius from the collapse of the fracture (radial length), and congruency of the distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ). Displacement of the articular surface is the most important factor affecting prognosis and treatment. CT scan is often performed to further investigate the articular anatomy of the fracture, especially if surgery is considered. MRI can be considered to evaluate for soft tissue injuries, including damage to the TFCC and the interosseous ligaments.

To assess an olecranon fracture, a careful skin exam is performed to ensure there is no open fracture. Then a complete neurological exam of the upper limb should be documented. Frontal and lateral X-ray views of the elbow are typically done to investigate the possibility of an olecranon fracture. A true lateral x-ray is essential to determine the fracture pattern, degree of displacement, comminution, and the degree of articular involvement.

Diagnosis may be evident clinically when the distal radius is deformed but should be confirmed by X-ray.

The differential diagnosis includes scaphoid fractures and wrist dislocations, which can also co-exist with a distal radius fracture. Occasionally, fractures may not be seen on X-rays immediately after the injury. Delayed X-rays, X-ray computed tomography (CT scan), or Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) will confirm the diagnosis.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound are comparable in efficacy and helpful in diagnosis although both have a false positive rate of 15 - 20%. MRI can reliably detect most full-thickness tears although very small pinpoint tears may be missed. In such situations, an MRI combined with an injection of contrast material, an MR-arthrogram, may help to confirm the diagnosis. It should be realized that a normal MRI cannot fully rule out a small tear (a false negative) while partial-thickness tears are not as reliably detected. While MRI is sensitive in identifying tendon degeneration (tendinopathy), it may not reliably distinguish between a degenerative tendon and a partially torn tendon. Again, magnetic resonance arthrography can improve the differentiation. An overall sensitivity of 91% (9% false negative rate) has been reported indicating that magnetic resonance arthrography is reliable in the detection of partial-thickness rotator cuff tears. However, its routine use is not advised, since it involves entering the joint with a needle with potential risk of infection. Consequently, the test is reserved for cases in which the diagnosis remains unclear.

X-ray images (normally during weightbearing) can be obtained to rule out other conditions or to see if the patient also has osteoarthritis. The menisci themselves cannot be visualised with plain radiographs. If the diagnosis is not clear from the history and examination, the menisci can be imaged with magnetic resonance imaging (an MRI scan). This technique has replaced previous arthrography, which involved injecting contrast medium into the joint space. In straightforward cases, knee arthroscopy allows quick diagnosis and simultaneous treatment. Recent clinical data shows that MRI and clinical testing are comparable in sensitivity and specificity when looking for a meniscal tear.

The diagnosis is a combination of clinical suspicion plus radiological investigation. Children with a SCFE experience a decrease in their range of motion, and are often unable to complete hip flexion or fully rotate the hip inward. 20-50% of SCFE are missed or misdiagnosed on their first presentation to a medical facility. SCFEs may be initially overlooked, because the first symptom is knee pain, referred from the hip. The knee is investigated and found to be normal.

The diagnosis requires x-rays of the pelvis, with anteriorposterior (AP) and frog-leg lateral views. The appearance of the head of the femur in relation to the shaft likens that of a "melting ice cream cone", visible with Klein's line. The severity of the disease can be measured using the Southwick angle.

Laximetry is a reliable technique for diagnosing a torn anterior cruciate ligament.

Musculoskeletal ultrasound has been advocated by experienced practitioners, avoiding the radiation of X-ray and the expense of MRI while demonstrating comparable accuracy to MRI for identifying and measuring the size of full-thickness and partial-thickness rotator cuff tears. This modality can also reveal the presence of other conditions that may mimic rotator cuff tear at clinical examination, including tendinosis, calcific tendinitis, subacromial subdeltoid bursitis, greater tuberosity fracture, and adhesive capsulitis. However, MRI provides more information about adjacent structures in the shoulder such as the capsule, glenoid labrum muscles and bone and these factors should be considered in each case when selecting the appropriate study.

The MRI is perhaps the most used technique for diagnosing the state of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament but it not always the most reliable. In some cases the Anterior Cruciate Ligament can indeed not be seen because of the blood surrounding it.

In all injuries to the tibial plateau radiographs (commonly called x-rays) are imperative. Computed tomography scans are not always necessary but are sometimes critical for evaluating degree of fracture and determining a treatment plan that would not be possible with plain radiographs. Magnetic Resonance images are the diagnositic modality of choice when meniscal, ligamentous and soft tissue injuries are suspected. CT angiography should be considered if there is alteration of the distal pulses or concern about arterial injury.

Conventional radiography is usually the initial assessment tool when a calcaneal fracture is suspected. Recommended x-ray views are (a) axial, (b) anteroposterior, (c) oblique and (d) views with dorsiflexion and internal rotation of the foot. However, conventional radiography is limited for visualization of calcaneal anatomy, especially at the subtalar joint. A CT scan is currently the imaging study of choice for evaluating calcaneal injury and has substituted conventional radiography in the classification of calcaneal fractures. Axial and coronal views are obtained for proper visualization of the calcaneus, subtalar, calcaneocuboid and talonavicular joints.

Diagnosis is confirmed by x-ray imaging. Displaced fractures are readily apparent. A non-displaced fracture can be difficult to identify and a fracture line may not be visible on the X-rays. However, the presence of a joint effusion is highly suggestive of a non-displaced fracture. Bleeding from the fracture expands the joint capsule and is visualized on the lateral view as a darker area anteriorly and posteriorly, and is known as the sail sign. Depending on the child's age, parts of the bone will still be developing and if not yet calcified, will not show up on the X-rays. At times, X-rays of the opposite elbow may be obtained for comparison. There are landmarks on the X-rays that can be used to assess displacement, including the "anterior humeral line", which is a line drawn down along the front of the humerus on the lateral view and it should pass through the middle third of the capitulum of the humerus.

According to the posterior cruciate ligament injuries only account for 1.5 percent of all knee injuries (figure 2). If it is a single injury to the posterior cruciate ligament that requires surgery only accounted for 1.1 percent compared to all other cruciate surgeries but when there was multiple injuries to the knee the posterior cruciate ligament accounted for 1.2 percent of injuries.

A grade III PCL injury with more than 10mm posterior translation when the posterior drawer examination is performed may be treated surgically. Patients that do not improve stability during physical therapy or develop an increase in pain will be recommended for surgery.

Anterior-posterior (AP) X-rays of the pelvis, AP and lateral views of the femur (knee included) are ordered for diagnosis. The size of the head of the femur is then compared across both sides of the pelvis. The affected femoral head will appear larger if the dislocation is anterior, and smaller if posterior. A CT scan may also be ordered to clarify the fracture pattern.

No non-invasive tests are currently able to diagnose articular cartilage damage. Additionally, symptoms vary considerably from person to person. Or as Dr. Karen Hambly stated:

MRI-scans are becoming more valuable in the analysis of articular cartilage but their use is still expensive and time consuming. X-rays show only bone injuries and are therefore not very helpful in diagnosing cartilage damage, especially not in early stages. The best tool for diagnosing articular damage is the use of arthroscopy.

FAI-related pain is often felt in the groin, but may also be experienced in the lower back or around the hip. The diagnosis, often with a co-existing labral tear, typically involves physical examination in which the range of motion of the hip is tested. Limited flexibility leads to further examination with x-ray, providing a two-dimensional view of the hip joints. Additional specialized views, such as the Dunn view, may make x-ray more sensitive. Subsequent imaging techniques such as CT or MRI may follow producing a three-dimensional reconstruction of the joint to evaluate the hip cartilage, demonstrate signs of osteoarthritis, or measure hip socket angles (e.g. the alpha-angle as described by Nötzli in 2-D and by Siebenrock in 3-D). It is also possible to perform dynamic simulation of hip motion with CT or MRI assisting to establish whether, where, and to what extent, impingement is occurring.

Anterior-posterior (AP) and lateral radiographs are typically obtained. In order to rule out other injuries, hip, pelvis, and knee radiographs are also obtained. The hip radiograph is of particular importance, because femoral neck fractures can lead to osteonecrosis of the femoral head.

"Baumann's angle", also known as the humeral-capitellar angle, is measured on an AP radiograph of the elbow between the long axis of the humerus and the growth plate of the lateral condyle.

Reported normal values for Baumann's angle range between 9 and 26° An angle of more than 10° is generally regarded as acceptable. When reducing paediatric supracondylar humerus fractures, a deviation of more than 5° from the contralateral side should not be accepted.

Alteration of Baumann angle: Baumann's angle is created by drawing a line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the humeral shaft and a line along the lateral condylar physis as viewed on the AP image normal is 70-75 degrees, but best judge is a comparison of the contralateral side deviation of more than 5 degrees indicates coronal plane deformity and should not be accepted.

A meniscal tear can be classified in various ways: by anatomic location, by proximity to blood supply, etc. Various tear patterns and configurations have been described. These include:

- Radial tears;

- Flap or parrot-beak tears;

- Peripheral, longitudinal tears;

- Bucket-handle tears;

- Horizontal cleavage tears; and

- Complex, degenerative tears.

These tears can then be further classified by their proximity to the meniscus blood supply, namely whether they are located in the “red-red,” “red-white,” or “white-white” zones.

The functional importance of these classifications, however, is to ultimately determine whether a meniscus is repairable. The repairability of a meniscus depends on a number of factors. These include:

- Age/strength

- Activity level

- Tear pattern

- Chronicity of the tear

- Associated injuries (anterior cruciate ligament injury)

- Healing potential

Patients can be observed standing and walking to determine patellar alignment. The Q-angle, lateral hypermobility, and J-sign are commonly used determined to determine patellar maltracking. The patellofemoral glide, tilt, and grind tests (Clarke's sign), when performed, can provide strong evidence for PFPS. Lastly, lateral instability can be assessed via the patellar apprehension test, which is deemed positive when there is pain or discomfort associated with lateral translation of the patella.

The classic diagnostic technique is with appropriate X-rays and hip scoring tests. These should be done at an appropriate age, and perhaps repeated at adulthood - if done too young they will not show anything. Since the condition is to a large degree inherited, the hip scores of parents should be professionally checked before buying a pup, and the hip scores of dogs should be checked before relying upon them for breeding. Despite the fact that the condition is inherited, it can occasionally arise even to animals with impeccably hip scored parents.

In diagnosing suspected dysplasia, the x-ray to evaluate the internal state of the joints is usually combined with a study of the animal and how it moves, to confirm whether its quality of life is being affected. Evidence of lameness or abnormal hip or spine use, difficulty or reduced movement when running or navigating steps, are all evidence of a problem. Both aspects have to be taken into account since there can be serious pain with little X-ray evidence.

It is also common to X-ray the spine and legs, as well as the hips, where dysplasia is suspected, since soft tissues can be affected by the extra strain of a dysplastic hip, or there may be other undetected factors such as neurological issues (e.g. nerve damage) involved.

There are several standardized systems for categorising dysplasia, set out by respective reputable bodies (Orthopedic Foundation for Animals/OFA, PennHIP, British Veterinary Association/BVA). Some of these tests require manipulation of the hip joint into standard positions, in order to reveal their condition on an X-ray.

The diagnosis of patellofemoral pain syndrome is made by ruling out patellar tendinitis, prepatellar bursitis, plica syndrome, Sinding-Larsen and Johansson syndrome, and Osgood–Schlatter disease.

Evaluating soft-tissue involvement is the most important aspect of the clinical examination because of its association with patient outcome. Skin blisters may become infected if medical attention is delayed, which can lead to necrotizing fasciitis or osteomyelitis, causing permanent damage to muscle or bone. Ligament and tendon involvement should also be explored. Achilles tendon injury can be seen with posterior (Type C) fractures. Since calcaneal fractures are related to falls from height, other concomitant injuries should be evaluated. Vertebral compression fractures occur in approximately 10% of these patients. A trauma-focused clinical approach should be implemented; tibial, knee, femur, hip, and head injuries should be ruled out by means of history and physical exam.

Treatment is aimed at achieving a stable, aligned, mobile and painless joint and to minimize the risk of post-traumatic osteoarthritis. To achieve this operative or non-operative treatment plans are considered by physicians based on criteria such as patient characteristics, severity, risk of complications, fracture depression and displacement, degree of injury to ligaments and menisci, vascular and neurological compromise.

For early management, traction should be performed early in ward. It can either be Skin Traction or Skeletal Traction. Depends on the body weight of patient and stability of the joint. Schantz pin insertion over the Calcaneum should be done from Medial to lateral side.

Later when condition is stable. Definitive plan would be Buttress Plating and Lag Screw fixation.