Lab testing is necessary for definitive diagnosis, but a good field test is to touch a dead larva with a toothpick or twig. It will be sticky and "ropey" (drawn out). Foulbrood also has a characteristic odor, and experienced beekeepers with a good sense of smell can often detect the disease upon opening a hive. However, this odour may not be noticeable until the disease is in an advanced stage. Since response and treatment is required as early as possible to protect other colonies, absence of odour cannot be relied on as indicating absence of foulbrood. Only regular and thorough inspection of the brood can identify the disease in its early stages.

The most reliable disease diagnosis is done by sending in some possibly affected brood comb to a laboratory specialized in identifying honey bee diseases.

Antibiotics, in non-resistant strains of the pathogen, can prevent the vegetative state of the bacterium forming. Drug treatment to prevent the American foulbrood spores from successfully germinating and proliferating is possible using oxytetracycline hydrochloride (Terramycin).

Another drug treatment, tylosin tartrate, was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2005.

Chemical treatment is sometimes used prophylactically, but this is a source of considerable controversy because certain strains of the bacterium seem to be rapidly developing resistance. In addition, hives that are contaminated with millions of American foulbrood spores have to be prophylactically treated indefinitely. Once the treatment is suspended the American foulbrood spores germinate successfully again leading to a disease outbreak.

Because of the persistence of the spores (which can survive up to 40 years), many State Apiary Inspectors require an AFB diseased hive to be burned completely. A less radical method of containing the spread of disease is burning the frames and comb and thoroughly flame scorching the interior of the hive body, bottom board and covers. Dipping the hive parts in hot paraffin wax or a 3% sodium hypochlorite solution (bleach) also renders the AFB spores innocuous. It is also possible to sterilize an infected hive without damaging either the structure of the hive or the stores of honey and pollen it contains by sufficiently lengthy exposure to an atmosphere of ethylene oxide gas, as in a closed chamber, as hospitals do to sterilize equipment that cannot withstand steam sterilization.

Brigham Young University is currently studying the use of phage therapy to treat American foulbrood.

The primary method for controlling the incidence of gaffkaemia is improved hygiene. Other measures include limiting damage to the exoskeleton (preventing the bacterium's entry), reducing the water temperature, and reducing the stocking density. Antibiotics may be effective against the bacterium, but only tetracycline is currently approved by the U.S Food and Drug Administration for use in American lobsters.

The classical method of diagnosis is to culture of haemolymph in phenylethyl alcohol broth. Cultures containing "A. viridans" var. "homari" change colour from purple to yellow, and form tetrads of cocci. To reduce the four-day waiting time needed for diagnosis, a method using the indirect fluorescent antibody technique (IFAT) was developed, and, more recently, PCR-based methods have been developed.

Dutch elm disease (DED) is caused by a member of the sac fungi (Ascomycota) affecting elm trees, and is spread by elm bark beetles. Although believed to be originally native to Asia, the disease was accidentally introduced into America and Europe, where it has devastated native populations of elms that did not have resistance to the disease. It has also reached New Zealand. The name "Dutch elm disease" refers to its identification in 1921 and later in the Netherlands by Dutch phytopathologists Bea Schwarz and Christine Buisman who both worked with Professor Johanna Westerdijk. The disease affects species in the genera "Ulmus" and "Zelkova", therefore it is not specific to the Dutch elm hybrid.

One of the biggest risks factors faced by the affected foals is susceptibility to secondary infection. Within three to eight days after birth, the foal may die from infection or is euthanized for welfare reasons.

The causative agents of DED are ascomycete microfungi. Three species are now recognized:

- "Ophiostoma ulmi", which afflicted Europe from 1910, reaching North America on imported timber in 1928.

- "Ophiostoma himal-ulmi", a species endemic to the western Himalaya.

- "Ophiostoma novo-ulmi", an extremely virulent species from Japan which was first described in Europe and North America in the 1940s and has devastated elms in both continents since the late 1960s.

DED is spread in North America by three species of bark beetles (Family: Curculionidae, Subfamily: Scolytinae):

- The native elm bark beetle, "Hylurgopinus rufipes".

- The European elm bark beetle, "Scolytus multistriatus".

- The banded elm bark beetle, "Scolytus schevyrewi".

In Europe, while "S. multistriatus" still acts as a vector for infection, it is much less effective than the large elm bark beetle, "S. scolytus". "H. rufipes" can be a vector for the disease, but is inefficient compared to the other vectors. "S. schevyrewi" was found in 2003 in Colorado and Utah.

Other reported DED vectors include "Scolytus sulcifrons", "S. pygmaeus", "S. laevis", "Pteleobius vittatus" and "Р. kraatzi". Other elm bark beetle species are also likely vectors.

Biopsies of the skin may be performed to identify the cleavage that takes place at the dermal-epidermal junction. Another test that can aid in a diagnosis of JEB is the positive Nikolsky’s sign. By applying pressure to the skin, transverse movements can indicate slipping between the dermal and epidermal layers. An easier and more definitive test is through polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This method allows mane and tail samples to be genetically tested for the mutated genes that cause the condition. Hair samples must be pulled, not cut, with roots attached. The test can detect both JEB1 and JEB2. Testing costs around $35.00 US per sample.

In various studies, about one half of the patients who seek medical treatment for symptoms of MCS meet the criteria for depressive and anxiety disorders. Because many people eliminate whole categories of food in an effort to reduce symptoms, a complete review of the patient's diet may be needed to avoid nutritional deficiencies.

In response to a WHO call for papers at the 5th Paris Appeal Congress of Environmental Idiopathic Intolerance conference that took place in Belgium on the 18th of May, a report that was generally supportive quoted a number of international practitioners. This was provisionally accepted by the Spanish health ministry, and later found proven by a judge in the case of a plumber in the Province of Castellón

MCS is a diagnosis of exclusion, and the first step in diagnosing a potential MCS sufferer is to identify and treat all other conditions which are present and which often explain the reported symptoms. For example, depression, allergy, thyroid disorders, orthostatic syndromes, lupus, hypercalcemia, and anxiety need to be carefully evaluated and, if present, properly treated. The "gold standard" procedure for identifying a person who has MCS is to test response to the random introduction of chemicals the patient has self-identified as relevant. This may be done in a carefully designed challenge booth to eliminate the possibility of contaminants in the room. Chemicals and controls, sometimes called prompts, are introduced in a random method, usually scent-masked. The test subject does not know when a prompt is being given. Objective and subjective responses are measured. Objective measures, such as the galvanic skin response indicate psychological arousal, such as fear, anxiety, or anger. Subjective responses include patient self-reports. A diagnosis of MCS can only be justified when the subject cannot consciously distinguish between chemicals and controls, and when responses are consistently present with exposure to chemicals and consistently absent when prompted by a control.

A 1999 consensus statement recommends that MCS be diagnosed according to six standardized criteria:

1. Symptoms are reproducible with repeated (chemical) exposures

2. The condition has persisted for a significant period of time

3. Low levels of exposure (lower than previously or commonly tolerated) result in manifestations of the syndrome ("i.e." increased sensitivity)

4. The symptoms improve or resolve completely when the triggering chemicals are removed

5. Responses often occur to multiple chemically unrelated substances

6. Symptoms involve multiple-organ symptoms (runny nose, itchy eyes, headache, scratchy throat, ear ache, scalp pain, mental confusion or sleepiness, palpitations of the heart, upset stomach, nausea and/or diarrhea, abdominal cramping, aching joints).

Afro-textured hair is the natural hair texture of certain populations in Africa, the African diaspora, Australia and Asia, which has not been altered by hot combs, flat irons or chemicals (through perming, relaxation or other straightening methods). Each strand of this hair type grows in a tiny, spring-like helix shape. The overall effect is such that, compared to straight, wavy or curly hair, afro-textured hair appears denser.

During the 1980s, dentist Hal Huggins, sparking severe controversy, spawned biological dentistry, which claims that conventional tooth extraction routinely leaves within the tooth socket the periodontal ligament that often becomes gangrenous, then, forming a jawbone "cavitation" seeping infectious and toxic material. Sometimes forming elsewhere in bones after injury or ischemia, jawbone cavitations are recognized as foci also in osteopathy and in alternative medicine, but conventional dentists generally conclude them to be nonexistent. Although the International Academy of Oral Medicine & Toxicology claims that the scientific evidence establishing the existence of jawbone cavitations is overwhelming, and even published in textbooks, the diagnosis and related treatment remain controversial, and allegations of quackery persist.

Huggins and many biological dentists also espouse Weston Price's findings on endodontically treated teeth routinely being foci of infection, although these dentists have been accused of quackery. Conventional belief is that microorganisms within inaccessible regions of a tooth's roots are rendered harmless once entrapped by the filling material, although little evidence supports this. A H Rogers in 1976 and E H Ehrmann in 1977 had dismissed any relation between endodontics and focal infection. At dentist George Meinig's 1994 book, "Root Canal Cover-Up Exposed", discussing researches of Rosenow and of Price, some dentistry scholars reasserted that the claims were evaluated and disproved by the 1940s. Yet Meinig was but one of at least three authors who in the early 1990s independently renewed the concern.

Boyd Haley and Curt Pendergrass found especially high levels of bacterial toxins in root-filled teeth. Although such possibility appears especially likely amid compromised immunity—as in individuals cirrhotic, asplenic, elderly, rheumatoid arthritic, or using steroid drugs—there remained a lack of carefully controlled studies definitely establishing adverse systemic effects. Conversely, some if few studies have investigated effects of systemic disease on root-canal therapy's outcomes, which tend to worsen with poor glycemic control, perhaps via impaired immune response, a factor largely ignored until recently, but now recognized as important. Still, even by 2010, "the potential association between systemic health and root canal therapy has been strongly disputed by dental governing bodies and there remains little evidence to substantiate the claims".

The traditional root-filling material is gutta-percha, whereas a new material, Biocalex, drew initial optimism even in alternative dentistry, but Biocalex-filled teeth were later reported by Boyd Haley to likewise seep toxic byproducts of anaerobic bacterial metabolism. Seeking to sterilize the tooth interior, some dentists, both alternative and conventional, have applied laser technology. Although endodontic therapy can fail and eventually often does, dentistry scholars maintain that it "can" be performed without creating focal infections. And even by 2010, molecular methods had rendered no consensus reports of bacteremia traced to asymptomatic endodontic infection. In any event, the predominant view is that shunning endodonthic therapy or routinely extracting endodontically treated teeth to treat or prevent systemic diseases remains unscientific and misguided.

Exotic ungulate encephalopathy is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), or prion disease, identified in infected organs of zoo animals. This subgroup of the TSEs in captive animals was identified in zoo animals in Great Britain including species of greater kudu, nyala, gemsbok, the common eland, Arabian and Scimitar Oryx, an Ankole-Watusi cow, and an American bison. Studies indicate that transmission likely occurred via the consumption of feed supplemented with meat and bone meal, although some animals died after the British ban on ground offal in animal feed. All animals died during the 1990s, with the last death occurring in 1998.

In many post-Columbian, Western societies, adjectives such as "wooly", "kinky", "nappy", or "spiralled" have frequently been used to describe natural afro-textured hair. More recently, however, it has become common in some circles to apply numerical grading systems to human hair types.

One popular version of these systems classifies afro-textured hair as 'type 4' (straight hair is type 1, wavy type 2, and curly is type 3, with the letters A, B, and C used to indicate the degree of coil variation within each type), with the subcategory of type 4C being most exemplary of this hair type (Walker, 1997). However, afro-textured hair is often difficult to categorize because of the many different variations among individuals. Those variations include pattern (mainly tight coils), pattern size (watch spring to chalk), density (sparse to dense), strand diameter (fine, medium, coarse), and feel (cottony, wooly, spongy).

The chart below is the most commonly used chart to help determine hair types:

Focal infection theory is the historical concept that many chronic diseases, including systemic and common ones, are caused by focal infections. In present medical consensus, a focal infection is a localized infection, often asymptomatic, that causes disease elsewhere in the host, but focal infections are fairly infrequent and limited to fairly uncommon diseases. (Distant injury is focal infection's key principle, whereas in ordinary infectious disease, the infection itself is systemic, as in measles, or the initially infected site is readily identifiable and invasion progresses contiguously, as in gangrene.) Focal infection theory, rather, so explained virtually all diseases, including arthritis, atherosclerosis, cancer, and mental illnesses.

An ancient concept that took modern form around 1900, focal infection theory was widely accepted in medicine by the 1920s. In the theory, the "focus of infection" might lead to secondary infections at sites particularly susceptible to such microbial species or toxin. Commonly alleged foci were diverse—appendix, urinary bladder, gall bladder, kidney, liver, prostate, and nasal sinuses—but most commonly were oral. Besides dental decay and infected tonsils, both dental restorations and especially endodontically treated teeth were blamed as foci. The putative "oral sepsis" was countered by tonsillectomies and tooth extractions, including of endodontically treated teeth and even of apparently healthy teeth, newly popular approaches—sometimes leaving individuals toothless—to treat or prevent diverse diseases.

Drawing severe criticism in the 1930s, focal infection theory—whose popularity zealously exceeded consensus evidence—was discredited in the 1940s by research attacks that drew overwhelming consensus of this sweeping theory's falsity. Thereupon, dental restorations and endodontic therapy became again favored. Untreated endodontic "disease" retained mainstream recognition as fostering systemic disease. But only alternative medicine and later biological dentistry continued highlighting sites of dental treatment—still endodontic therapy, but, more recently, also dental implant, and even tooth extraction, too—as foci of infection causing chronic and systemic diseases. In mainstream dentistry and medicine, the primary recognition of focal infection is endocarditis, if oral bacteria enter blood and infect the heart, perhaps its valves.

Entering the 21st century, scientific evidence supporting general relevance of focal infections remained slim, yet evolved understandings of disease mechanisms had established a third possible mechanism—altogether, metastasis of infection, metastatic toxic injury, and, as recently revealed, metastatic immunologic injury—that might occur simultaneously and even interact. Meanwhile, focal infection theory has gained renewed attention, as dental infections apparently are widespread and significant contributors to systemic diseases, although mainstream attention is on ordinary periodontal disease, not on hypotheses of stealth infections via dental "treatment". Despite some doubts renewed in the 1990s by conventional dentistry's critics, dentistry scholars maintain that endodontic therapy can be performed without creating focal infections.

Currently there is no cure for actinic prurigo, and treatment focuses on relieving the dermatologic symptoms, by way of topical steroid creams or systemic immunosuppressants.

Prescribed treatments include:

- topical creams such as Tacrolimus and Betamethasone.

- systemic immunosuppressants such as Prednisone.

- In some cases, Thalidomide has proven to be effective in controlling the symptoms of actinic prurigo.

All patients with AP are encouraged to minimize sun exposure, and to use strong sunscreen throughout the year, and even on cloudy or overcast days, as UVA light, unlike UVB light, is able to penetrate cloud cover and remains constant throughout the day.

Alternative treatment methods might include UV Hardening, Meditation and/or cognitive behavioral therapy. UV-A desensitization phototherapy has also been shown to be effective in cases.

In Haiti, few cases of human rabies are reported to health authorities. In 2016, a report of a woman who had been exposed to rabies three months prior and was showing symptoms went to the hospital where no treatment was administered to her. Even after being reported to both the CDC and the national Department of Epidemiology and Laboratory Research (DELR), as required by Haiti's surveillance program, the woman ended up passing away. This goes to show the lack of communication and effectiveness in caring for human subjects in Haiti, and the continued focus is on eliminating dog-mediated rabies altogether.

Human diploid cell culture rabies vaccine (HDCV) and purified chick embryo cell culture rabies vaccine (PCEC) are used to treat post-exposure immunization against a human rabies infection. Recommendations for treatment are given by governmental health care organizations and in health literature. Health care providers are encouraged to administer a regimen of four 1-mL doses of HDCV or PCEC vaccines. According to the CDC, these injections should be administered intramuscularly to persons who have not yet been vaccinated for rabies.

For those who are unvaccinated, the first of four doses is administered immediately after exposure to the rabies virus. Additional doses are given three, seven, and fourteen days after the first vaccination. Exposure usually means a bite from a rabid animal.

At an individual patient level, post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) consists of local treatment of the wound, vaccination, and administration of immunoglobulin, if necessary [3]. At the program level, several components are critical, including: adequate and prompt recognition of the need for PEP by the public, if exposed, and by health officials, prompt and sufficient availability of high-quality PEP, and adequate follow-up of PEP use. Health officials' awareness of the need for PEP after a dog bite can only be achieved if the exposure is attended to immediately and communicated effectively.

A lallation (also called cambia-letras or troca-letra, "letter changer", in Latin American countries) is an imperfect enunciation of the letter "L", in which it sounds like "R" (or vice versa), as frequently found in infantile speech.

The speech pattern has been particularly associated with the use of the Portuguese, Spanish and English languages by Chinese, Korean, and Japanese people. The use of lallation has thus been a common feature of Western stereotypes of East Asian people. It is also common among English-speakers in parts of East Africa.

American tick bite fever (also known as ""Rickettsia parkeri" infection") is a condition that may be characterized by a rash of maculopapules.

In Haiti, the control of dog rabies is led by the MARNDR while the MSPP manages health-care and rabies prevention in the human population. The separation of these ministries makes it easier for responsibilities to be divided among them. Communication about finding the source of exposure and implementing control methods to prevent further cross-species transmission is also more effective. This task is difficult enough within departments of the same ministry, (e.g., health care and epidemiology), which can be seen in experiences elsewhere. This is why a comprehensive evaluation of Haiti's rabies program should heavily consider the costs and benefits of this separation of responsibilities between the two ministries early on.

Despite a planned mass vaccination for dogs in 2013, no campaign was actually conducted. Authorities in Haiti relied on funds donated by the World Bank for the purchase of approximately 500,000 doses of inactivated, injectable vaccine (IMRAB by Merial). Although the funds were awarded in April 2013, the vaccine itself did not arrive until 2014 when the dog vaccination finally went underway in September 2014. The process as a whole was expected to terminate in January 2015. The lack of manpower needed to deliver faster implementation made it impossible for the campaign to be completed in less than four months.

Another challenge presented is vaccination failure, which usually leads to recurrent rabies in dogs and inconsistent control of the disease. The failures that disrupt annual campaigns or have insufficient coverage, for example, are seen as the main cause for this problem. Another factor is that in Haiti, dog vaccinations have been inconsistently applied. Back in 2012 when the last mass vaccination was led by the MARNDR, approximately 400,000 dogs were vaccinated. With this in mind, considering a current human population of approximately 10,000,000, a relation of one dog per ten people, and aiming to attain 70 percent of vaccine coverage, 700,000 dogs would have to be vaccinated. Assessing the effectiveness of this vaccination campaign is difficult because the dog population figures are unreliable (estimates range from 800,000 to 1,200,000 dogs), and though the overall success seems to be limited.

The number of rabid dogs detected by the MARNDR, MSPP, and CDC is a huge risk to people and is not accurately reflected in their surveillance figures. Although international support is common in both technical help and donations, it is not comprehensive. In addition, the MARNDR, MSPP, and other actors do not communicate effectively because of human resource limitations. That being said, the 2015 elimination goal in the region was compromised and control of the disease could not yet be achieved, despite the efforts of resolute national officials. In conclusion, rabies in the dog population is still a problem and major threat to the Haitian population.

Vietnamese tuberculosis refers to certain forms of chronic melioidosis that look clinically very similar to tuberculosis. It is derived from the clinical appearance of the disease in American soldiers returning from the Vietnam War.

Hemoglobin J is an abnormal hemoglobin, an alpha globin gene variant and present in various geographic locations. It was first reported in a black American family in 1956. Later on reported from Indonsia, India, and other parts of the world. Hemoglobin J reported from Meerut India shows the mutation of 120th Alanine to Glutamic acid on alpha chain. Hemoglobin J was also reported from Chhattisgarh, Central India as revealed by Lingojwar and coworkers in 2016.

Among the indigenous peoples of Latin America, in which this illness is most common, susto may be conceptualized as a case of spirit attack. Symptoms of susto are thought to include nervousness, anorexia, insomnia, listlessness, fever, depression, and diarrhea.

AP is characterized by itchy, inflamed papules, nodules, and plaques on the skin. Lesions typically appear hours or days after exposure of the skin to UV light, and follow a general pattern of sun-exposed areas. The face, neck, arms, hands, and legs are often affected, although lesions sometimes appear on skin that is covered by clothing and thus not exposed to UV light, thus making AP somewhat difficult to diagnose.

AP is a chronic disease, and symptoms usually worsen in the spring and summer as the day lengthens and exposure to sunlight increases.

Families who are impacted by SIDS should be offered emotional support and grief counseling. The experience and manifestation of grief at the loss of an infant are impacted by cultural and individual differences.