Flow cytometry is a diagnostic tool in order to count/visualize the amount of lymphatic cells in the body. T cells, B cells and NK cells are nearly impossible to distinguish under a microscope, therefore one must use a flow cytometer to distinguish them.

Cytogenetic analysis has shown different proportions and frequencies of genetic abnormalities in cases of ALL from different age groups. This information is particularly valuable for classification and can in part explain different prognosis of these groups. In regards to genetic analysis, cases can be stratified according to ploidy, number of sets of chromosomes in the cell, and specific genetic abnormalities, such as translocations. Hyperdiploid cells are defined as cells with more than 50 chromosomes, while hypodiploid is defined as cells with less than 44 choromosomes. Hyperdiploid cases tend to carry good prognosis while hypodiploid cases do not. For example, the most common specific abnormality in childhood B-ALL is the t(12;21) "ETV6"-"RUNX1" translocation, in which the "RUNX1" gene, encoding a protein involved in transcriptional control of hemopoiesis, has been translocated and repressed by the "ETV6"-"RUNX1" fusion protein.

Below is a table with the frequencies of some cytogenetic translocations and molecular genetic abnormalities in ALL.

Diagnosing ALL begins with a thorough medical history, physical examination, complete blood count, and blood smears. While many symptoms of ALL can be found in common illnesses, persistent or unexplained symptoms raise suspicion of cancer. Because many features on the medical history and exam are not specific to ALL, further testing is often needed. A large number of white blood cells and lymphoblasts in the circulating blood can be suspicious for ALL because they indicate a rapid production of lymphoid cells in the marrow. The higher these numbers typically points to a worse prognosis. While white blood cell counts at initial presentation can vary significantly, circulating lymphoblast cells are seen on peripheral blood smears in the majority of cases.

A bone marrow biopsy provides conclusive proof of ALL, typically with >20% of all cells being leukemic lymphoblasts. A lumbar puncture (also known as a spinal tap) can determine whether the spinal column and brain have been invaded. Brain and spinal column involvement can be diagnosed either through confirmation of leukemic cells in the lumbar puncture or through clinical signs of CNS leukemia as described above. Laboratory tests that might show abnormalities include blood count, kidney function, electrolyte, and liver enzyme tests.

Pathological examination, cytogenetics (in particular the presence of Philadelphia chromosome), and immunophenotyping establish whether the leukemic cells are myeloblastic (neutrophils, eosinophils, or basophils) or lymphoblastic (B lymphocytes or T lymphocytes). Cytogenetic testing on the marrow samples can help classify disease and predict how aggressive the disease course will be. Different mutations have been associated with shorter or longer survival. Immunohistochemical testing may reveal TdT or CALLA antigens on the surface of leukemic cells. TdT is a protein expressed early in the development of pre-T and pre-B cells, whereas CALLA is an antigen found in 80% of ALL cases and also in the "blast crisis" of CML.

Medical imaging (such as ultrasound or CT scanning) can find invasion of other organs commonly the lung, liver, spleen, lymph nodes, brain, kidneys, and reproductive organs.

Diagnosis is usually based on repeated complete blood counts and a bone marrow examination following observations of the symptoms. Sometimes, blood tests may not show that a person has leukemia, especially in the early stages of the disease or during remission. A lymph node biopsy can be performed to diagnose certain types of leukemia in certain situations.

Following diagnosis, blood chemistry tests can be used to determine the degree of liver and kidney damage or the effects of chemotherapy on the patient. When concerns arise about other damage due to leukemia, doctors may use an X-ray, MRI, or ultrasound. These can potentially show leukemia's effects on such body parts as bones (X-ray), the brain (MRI), or the kidneys, spleen, and liver (ultrasound). CT scans can be used to check lymph nodes in the chest, though this is uncommon.

Despite the use of these methods to diagnose whether or not a patient has leukemia, many people have not been diagnosed because many of the symptoms are vague, non-specific, and can refer to other diseases. For this reason, the American Cancer Society estimates that at least one-fifth of the people with leukemia have not yet been diagnosed.

The first clue to a diagnosis of AML is typically an abnormal result on a complete blood count. While an excess of abnormal white blood cells (leukocytosis) is a common finding with the leukemia, and leukemic blasts are sometimes seen, AML can also present with isolated decreases in platelets, red blood cells, or even with a low white blood cell count (leukopenia). While a presumptive diagnosis of AML can be made by examination of the peripheral blood smear when there are circulating leukemic blasts, a definitive diagnosis usually requires an adequate bone marrow aspiration and biopsy as well as ruling out pernicious anemia (Vitamin B12 deficiency), folic acid deficiency and copper deficiency.

Marrow or blood is examined under light microscopy, as well as flow cytometry, to diagnose the presence of leukemia, to differentiate AML from other types of leukemia (e.g. acute lymphoblastic leukemia - ALL), and to classify the subtype of disease. A sample of marrow or blood is typically also tested for chromosomal abnormalities by routine cytogenetics or fluorescent "in situ" hybridization. Genetic studies may also be performed to look for specific mutations in genes such as "FLT3", nucleophosmin, and "KIT", which may influence the outcome of the disease.

Cytochemical stains on blood and bone marrow smears are helpful in the distinction of AML from ALL, and in subclassification of AML. The combination of a myeloperoxidase or Sudan black stain and a nonspecific esterase stain will provide the desired information in most cases. The myeloperoxidase or Sudan black reactions are most useful in establishing the identity of AML and distinguishing it from ALL. The nonspecific esterase stain is used to identify a monocytic component in AMLs and to distinguish a poorly differentiated monoblastic leukemia from ALL.

The diagnosis and classification of AML can be challenging, and should be performed by a qualified hematopathologist or hematologist. In straightforward cases, the presence of certain morphologic features (such as Auer rods) or specific flow cytometry results can distinguish AML from other leukemias; however, in the absence of such features, diagnosis may be more difficult.

The two most commonly used classification schemata for AML are the older French-American-British (FAB) system and the newer World Health Organization (WHO) system. According to the widely used WHO criteria, the diagnosis of AML is established by demonstrating involvement of more than 20% of the blood and/or bone marrow by leukemic myeloblasts, except in the three best prognosis forms of acute myeloid leukemia with recurrent genetic abnormalities (t(8;21), inv(16), and t(15;17)) in which the presence of the genetic abnormality is diagnostic irrespective of blast percent. The French–American–British (FAB) classification is a bit more stringent, requiring a blast percentage of at least 30% in bone marrow (BM) or peripheral blood (PB) for the diagnosis of AML. AML must be carefully differentiated from "preleukemic" conditions such as myelodysplastic or myeloproliferative syndromes, which are treated differently.

Because acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) has the highest curability and requires a unique form of treatment, it is important to quickly establish or exclude the diagnosis of this subtype of leukemia. Fluorescent "in situ" hybridization performed on blood or bone marrow is often used for this purpose, as it readily identifies the chromosomal translocation [t(15;17)(q22;q12);] that characterizes APL. There is also a need to molecularly detect the presence of PML/RARA fusion protein, which is an oncogenic product of that translocation.

Evidence is conflicting on the prognostic significance of chloromas in patients with acute myeloid leukemia. In general, they are felt to augur a poorer prognosis, with a poorer response to treatment and worse survival; however, others have reported chloromas associate, as a biologic marker, with other poor prognostic factors, and therefore do not have independent prognostic significance.

Pralatrexate is one compound currently under investigations for the treatment of PTCL.

While it is generally considered incurable, CLL progresses slowly in most cases. Many people with CLL lead normal and active lives for many years—in some cases for decades. Because of its slow onset, early-stage CLL is, in general, not treated since it is believed that early CLL intervention does not improve survival time or quality of life. Instead, the condition is monitored over time to detect any change in the disease pattern.

The decision to start CLL treatment is taken when the patient's clinical symptoms or blood counts indicate that the disease has progressed to a point where it may affect the patient's quality of life.

Clinical "staging systems" such as the Rai four-stage system and the Binet classification can help to determine when and how to treat the patient.

Determining when to start treatment and by what means is often difficult; no survival advantage is seen in treating the disease very early. The National Cancer Institute Working Group has issued guidelines for treatment, with specific markers that should be met before it is initiated.

Staging, determining the extent of the disease, is done with the Rai staging system or the Binet classification (see details) and is based primarily on the presence of a low platelet or red cell count. Early-stage disease does not need to be treated. CLL and SLL are considered the same underlying disease, just with different appearances.

Rai staging system

- "Stage 0": characterized by absolute lymphocytosis (>15,000/mm) without adenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, anemia, or thrombocytopenia

- "Stage I": characterized by absolute lymphocytosis with lymphadenopathy without hepatosplenomegaly, anemia, or thrombocytopenia

- "Stage II:" characterized by absolute lymphocytosis with either hepatomegaly or splenomegaly with or without lymphadenopathy

- "Stage III": characterized by absolute lymphocytosis and anemia (hemoglobin <11 g/dL) with or without lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly, or splenomegaly

- "Stage IV": characterized by absolute lymphocytosis and thrombocytopenia (<100,000/mm) with or without lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, or anemia

Binet classification

- "Clinical stage A": characterized by no anemia or thrombocytopenia and fewer than three areas of lymphoid involvement (Rai stages 0, I, and II)

- "Clinical stage B": characterized by no anemia or thrombocytopenia with three or more areas of lymphoid involvement (Rai stages I and II)

- "Clinical stage C": characterized by anemia and/or thrombocytopenia regardless of the number of areas of lymphoid enlargement (Rai stages III and IV)

Definitive diagnosis of a chloroma usually requires a biopsy of the lesion in question. Historically, even with a tissue biopsy, pathologic misdiagnosis was an important problem, particularly in patients without a clear pre-existing diagnosis of acute myeloid leukemia to guide the pathologist. In one published series on chloroma, the authors stated that 47% of the patients were initially misdiagnosed, most often as having a malignant lymphoma.

However, with advances in diagnostic techniques, the diagnosis of chloromas can be made more reliable. Traweek et al. described the use of a commercially available panel of monoclonal antibodies, against myeloperoxidase, CD68, CD43, and CD20, to accurately diagnose chloroma via immunohistochemistry and differentiate it from lymphoma. Nowadays, immunohistochemical staining using monoclonal antibodies against CD33 and CD117 would be the mainstay of diagnosis. The increasingly refined use of flow cytometry has also facilitated more accurate diagnosis of these lesions.

The diagnosis of HCL may be suggested by abnormal results on a complete blood count (CBC), but additional testing is necessary to confirm the diagnosis. A CBC normally shows low counts for white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets in HCL patients. However, if large numbers of hairy cells are in the blood stream, then normal or even high lymphocyte counts may be found.

On physical exam, 80–90% of patients have an enlarged spleen, which can be massive. This is less likely among patients who are diagnosed at an early stage. Peripheral lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes) is uncommon (less than 5% of patients), but abdominal lymphadenopathy is a relatively common finding on computed tomography (CT) scans.

The most important lab finding is the presence of hairy cells in the bloodstream. Hairy cells are abnormal white blood cells with hair-like projections of cytoplasm; they can be seen by examining a blood smear or bone marrow biopsy specimen. The blood film examination is done by staining the blood cells with Wright's stain and looking at them under a microscope. Hairy cells are visible in this test in about 85% of cases.

Most patients require a bone marrow biopsy for final diagnosis. The bone marrow biopsy is used both to confirm the presence of HCL and also the absence of any additional diseases, such as Splenic marginal zone lymphoma or B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia. The diagnosis can be confirmed by viewing the cells with a special stain known as TRAP (tartrate resistant acid phosphatase). More recently, DB44 testing assures more accurate results.

It is also possible to definitively diagnose hairy cell leukemia through flow cytometry on blood or bone marrow. The hairy cells are larger than normal and positive for CD19, CD20, CD22, CD11c, CD25, CD103, and FMC7. (CD103, CD22, and CD11c are strongly expressed.)

Hairy cell leukemia-variant (HCL-V), which shares some characteristics with B cell prolymphocytic leukemia (B-PLL), does not show CD25 (also called the Interleukin-2 receptor, alpha). As this is relatively new and expensive technology, its adoption by physicians is not uniform, despite the advantages of comfort, simplicity, and safety for the patient when compared to a bone marrow biopsy. The presence of additional lymphoproliferative diseases is easily checked during a flow cytometry test, where they characteristically show different results.

The differential diagnoses include: several kinds of anemia, including myelophthisis and aplastic anemia, and most kinds of blood neoplasms, including hypoplastic myelodysplastic syndrome, atypical chronic lymphocytic leukemia, B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia, or idiopathic myelofibrosis.

Because the cause is unknown, no effective preventive measures can be taken.

Because the disease is rare, routine screening is not cost-effective.

Following observation of the symptoms, the patients need to get complete blood counts and a bone marrow examination. If the patient has leukemia, the morphology and immunophenotype check is needed to make sure the type of leukemia.

The morphology of the blast in BAL is not certain. The cells could display both myeloid lineage and lymphoid or undifferentiated morphology. Therefore, the diagnosis cannot based on the morphology result. The immunophenotype check is the most important basis of the diagnosis of BAL.

Before 2008, the diagnosis of BAL was based on a score system proposed by the European Group for the Immunological Classification of Leukemias (EGIL) which could differentiate from other kinds of acute leukemia. The table shows this method.

If the score of only one lineage is higher than 2, the acute leukemia could be acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). According to the original EGIL scoring system BAL is defined when scores are over two points for both myeloid and T- or B- lymphoid lineages.

In 2008, WHO established a new and strict criteria standard for diagnosis of BAL. The presence of specific T-lymphoid antigens, cytoplasmic CD3 (cCD3), MPO and CD 19 became the most important standard for recognizing the lineage. Other B-lineage markers (CD22, CD79a, CD 10) and monocytic markers are also needed. Table 2 shows the method.

Compared with the EGIL scoring system, the current 2008 WHO criteria applied less but more specific markers to define the lineage of the blasts, and incorporated the intensity of markers expression into the diagnostic algorithm.

The diagnosis of BAL is so difficult that sometimes is misdiagnosed with AML or ALL because the morphology thus the therapy would not have a good effect.

Leukemia is diagnosed in a variety of ways. Some diagnostic procedures include:

- A bone-marrow aspiration and biopsy; marrow may be removed by aspiration or a needle biopsy.

- A complete blood count, which is a measurement of size, number, and maturity of different blood cells in blood.

- Blood tests may include blood chemistry, evaluation of liver and kidney functions, and genetic studies.

- A lymph-node biopsy; lymph node tissue is surgically removed to examine under a microscope, to look for cancerous cells.

- A spinal tap: a special needle is placed into the lower back into the spinal canal, which is the area around the spinal cord. Cerebral spinal fluid is fluid that bathes the child's brain and spinal cord. A small amount of cerebral spinal fluid is sent for testing to determine if leukemia cells are present.

ANKL is treated similarly to most B-cell lymphomas. Anthracycline-containing chemotherapy regimens are commonly offered as the initial therapy. Some patients may receive a stem cell transplant.

Most patients will die 2 years after diagnosis.

Acute myeloid leukemia is a curable disease; the chance of cure for a specific person depends on a number of prognostic factors.

Blast crisis is the final phase in the evolution of CML, and behaves like an acute leukemia, with rapid progression and short survival. Blast crisis is diagnosed if any of the following are present in a patient with CML:

- >20% myeloblasts or lymphoblasts in the blood or bone marrow

- Large clusters of blasts in the bone marrow on biopsy

- Development of a chloroma (solid focus of leukemia outside the bone marrow)

CML accounts for 8% of all leukaemias in the UK, and around 680 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011.

Novel approaches to the treatment of PTCL in the relapsed or refractory setting are under investigation. Pralatrexate is one compound currently under investigations for the treatment of PTCL.

In the past 5 years, the research for the mechanisms of BAL does not have a great progress. Some new translocate case of BAL has been reported, such as t(15,17) and t(12,13). For t(15;17), the blasts with morphology of acute lymphoblastic leukemia co-expressed in B-lymphoid and myeloid lineages, and the cytogenetic study showed that the 4q21 abnormalities and t(15;17). However, promyelocytic-retinoid acid receptor rearrangement was not found by fluorescence in situ hybridization on interphase nuclei. Researchers also found some new chemotherapy method for specific cases. For example, The chemotherapy for ALL and gemtuzuab ozogamicin without all-trans-retinoic acid remain complete remission of the BAL patients with t(15,17) for more than 3.7 years.

The detection of BCR-ABL1 chimeric gene neutrophils was also found a good method for diagnosis some cases of BAL.

Totally, there is no breakthrough research for the therapy or mechanisms of BAL in recent years. For most of BAL patients, there is no good therapy method because we still don’t fully understand the mechanisms of BAL. Thus, we have to learn more about the different cases, do more research on the mutation that lead BAL. Beside chemotherapy, we should develop new method such as gene drug for BAL therapy.

Leukemia is rarely associated with pregnancy, affecting only about 1 in 10,000 pregnant women. How it is handled depends primarily on the type of leukemia. Nearly all leukemias appearing in pregnant women are acute leukemias. Acute leukemias normally require prompt, aggressive treatment, despite significant risks of pregnancy loss and birth defects, especially if chemotherapy is given during the developmentally sensitive first trimester. Chronic myelogenous leukemia can be treated with relative safety at any time during pregnancy with Interferon-alpha hormones. Treatment for chronic lymphocytic leukemias, which are rare in pregnant women, can often be postponed until after the end of the pregnancy.

Acute mast cell leukemia is extremely aggressive and has a grave prognosis. In most cases, multi-organ failure including bone marrow failure develops over weeks to months. Median survival after diagnosis is only about 6 months.

T-PLL is an extremely rare aggressive disease, and patients are not expected to live normal lifespans. Before the recent introduction of better treatments, such as alemtuzumab, the median survival time was 7.5 months after diagnosis. More recently, some patients have survived five years and more, although the median survival is still low.

There are two internationally accepted treatment protocols, which are geographically based:

- North America: the Children’s Oncology Group (COG) JMML study

- Europe: the European Working Group for Myelodysplastic Syndromes (EWOG-MDS) JMML study

The following procedures are used in one or both of the current clinical approaches listed above:

Treatment with conventional immunochemotherapy is usually indicated; in younger patients, allogeneic bone marrow transplantation may be curative.