Little is known in terms of effective means of prevention. Due to the low likelihood of transmission even from an infected mother, it is not recommended to expose the mother and child to the additional risks of caesarean section to prevent the transmission of this disease during vaginal childbirth. Opting for a caesarean section does not guarantee that transmission will not still occur.

Laryngeal papillomatosis can be diagnosed through visualization of the lesions using one of several indirect laryngoscopy procedures. In indirect laryngoscopy, the tongue is pulled forward and a laryngeal mirror or a rigid scope is passed through the mouth to examine the larynx. Another variation of indirect laryngoscopy involves passing a flexible scope, known as a fiberscope or endoscope, through the nose and into the throat to visualize the larynx from above. This procedure is also called flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy.

The appearance of papillomas has been described as multiple or rarely, single, white growths with a lumpy texture similar to cauliflower. Papillomas usually present in the larynx, especially on the vocal folds and in the space above the vocal folds called the ventricles. They can spread to other parts of the larynx and throughout the aerodigestive tract, from the mouth to the lower respiratory tract. Spread to regions beyond the larynx is more common in children then adults. Growths tend to be located at normal junctions in squamous and ciliated epithelium or at tissue junctions arising from injury.

A confirmatory diagnosis of laryngeal papillomatosis can only be obtained through a biopsy, involving microscopic examination and HPV testing of a sample of the growth. Biopsy samples are collected under general anesthesia, either through direct laryngoscopy or fiberoptic bronchoscopy.

Studies have found heightened HPV in mouth cell samples from people with squamous cell carcinoma of the mouth. Studies have not found significant HPV in mouth cells after sampling with toothbrushes (5 of 2,619 samples) and cytobrushes (no oral transmission found).

According to the National Cancer Institute, “The most common test detects DNA from several high-risk HPV types, but it cannot identify the type(s) that are present. Another test is specific for DNA from HPV types 16 and 18, the two types that cause most HPV-associated cancers. A third test can detect DNA from several high-risk HPV types and can indicate whether HPV-16 or HPV-18 is present. A fourth test detects RNA from the most common high-risk HPV types. These tests can detect HPV infections before cell abnormalities are evident.

“Theoretically, the HPV DNA and RNA tests could be used to identify HPV infections in cells taken from any part of the body. However, the tests are approved by the FDA for only two indications: for follow-up testing of women who seem to have abnormal Pap test results and for cervical cancer screening in combination with a Pap test among women over age 30.”

In April 2011, the Food and Drug Administration approved the cobas HPV Test, manufactured by Roche. This cervical cancer screening test “specifically identifies types HPV 16 and HPV 18 while concurrently detecting the rest of the high risk types (31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66 and 68).”

The cobas HPV Test was evaluated in the ATHENA trial, which studied more than 47,000 U.S. women 21 years old and older undergoing routine cervical cancer screening. Results from the ATHENA trial demonstrated that 1 in 10 women, age 30 and older, who tested positive for HPV 16 and/or 18, actually had cervical pre-cancer even though they showed normal results with the Pap test.

In March 2003, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the Hybrid Capture 2 test manufactured by Qiagen/Digene, which is a "hybrid-capture" test as an adjunct to Pap testing. The test may be performed during a routine Pap smear. It detects the DNA of 13 "high-risk" HPV types that most commonly affect the cervix, it does not determine the specific HPV types. Hybrid Capture 2 is the most widely studied commercially available HPV assay and the majority of the evidence for HPV primary testing in population-based screening programs is based on the Hybrid Capture 2 assay.

The recent outcomes in the identification of molecular pathways involved in cervical cancer provide helpful information about novel bio- or oncogenic markers that allow monitoring of these essential molecular events in cytological smears, histological, or cytological specimens. These bio- or onco- markers are likely to improve the detection of lesions that have a high risk of progression in both primary screening and triage settings. E6 and E7 mRNA detection PreTect HPV-Proofer (HPV OncoTect) or p16 cell-cycle protein levels are examples of these new molecular markers. According to published results, these markers, which are highly sensitive and specific, allow to identify cells going through malignant transformation.

In October 2011 the US Food and Drug Administration approved the Aptima HPV Assay test for RNA created when and if any HPV strains start creating cancers (see virology).

The vulva/vagina has been sampled with Dacron swabs and shows more HPV than the cervix. Among women who were HPV positive in either place, 90% were positive in the vulvovaginal region, 46% in the cervix.

The most effective diagnostic strategy is to perform laryngoscopy during an episode, at which time abnormal movement of the cords, if present, can be observed. If the endoscopy is not performed during an episode, it is likely that the vocal folds will be moving normally, a 'false negative' finding.

Spirometry may also be useful to establish the diagnosis of VCD when performed during a crisis or after a nasal provocation test. With spirometry, just as the expiratory loop may show flattening or concavity when expiration is affected in asthma, so may the Inspiratory loop show truncation or flattening in VCD. Of course, testing may well be negative when symptoms are absent.

The symptoms of VCD are often inaccurately attributed to asthma, which in turn results in the unnecessary and futile intake of corticosteroids, bronchodilators and leukotriene modifiers, although there are instances of comorbidity of asthma and VCD.

The differential diagnosis for vocal cord dysfunction includes vocal fold swelling from allergy, asthma, or some obstruction of the vocal folds or throat. Anyone suspected of this condition should be evaluated and the vocal folds (voice box) visualized. In individuals who experience a persistent difficulty with inhaling, consideration should be given to a neurological cause such as brain stem compression, cerebral palsy, etc.

The main difference between VCD and asthma is the audible stridor or wheezing that occurs at different stages of the breath cycle: VCD usually causes stridor on the inhalation, while asthma results in wheezing during exhalation. Patients with asthma usually respond to the usual medication and see their symptoms resolve. Clinical measures that can be done to differentiate VCD from asthma include:

- rhinolaryngoscopy: A patient with asthma will have normal vocal cord movement, while one with VCD will display vocal cord abduction during inhalation

- spirometry: A change in the measure following the administration of a bronchodilator is suggestive of asthma rather than VCD

- chest radiography: The presence of hyperinflation and peribronchial thickening are indicative of asthma, as patients with VCD will show normal results.

Improvement usually parallels that of the cancer, whether surgical or chemotherapeutic. Generalization of the associated visceral malignancy may worsen the eruption.

LPR presents with non-specific symptoms and signs that make differential diagnosis difficult to achieve. Furthermore, symptoms of the disorder overlap greatly with symptoms of other disorders. Therefore, LPR is under-diagnosed and under-treated. As there are multiple potential etiologies for the respiratory and laryngeal symptoms of LPR, diagnosing LPR based on symptoms alone is unreliable. Laryngoscopic findings such as erythema, edema, laryngeal granulomas, and interarytenoid hypertrophy have been used to establish the diagnosis; however, these findings are nonspecific and have been described in the majority of asymptomatic subjects undergoing laryngoscopy. Response to acid-suppression therapy has been suggested as a diagnostic tool for confirming diagnosis of LPR, but studies have shown that the response to empirical trials of such therapy (as with proton-pump inhibitors) in these patients is often disappointing. Several studies have emphasized the importance of measuring proximal esophageal, or ideally pharyngeal acid exposure, in patients with clinical symptoms of LPR to document reflux as the cause of the symptoms.

Additionally, several potential biomarkers of LPR have been investigated. These include inflammatory cytokines, carbonic anyhydrase, E-cadherin and mucins; however, their direct implications in LPR are still being established. The presence of pepsin, an enzyme produced in the stomach, in the hypopharynx has also become an increasingly researched biomarker for LPR. Research suggests that the stomach enzyme pepsin plays a crucial role in the complex mechanism behind LPR.

Before a diagnosis can be made, a physician will need to record the patient’s medical history and ask for details about the presenting symptoms. Questionnaires such as the Reflux Symptom Index (RSI), Quality-of-Life Index (QLI) for LPR, Glottal Closure/Function Index (GCI) and Voice Handicap Index (VHI) can be administered to gain information about the patient's medical history as well as their symptomatology. A physical examination will then need to be performed with particular concentration around the head and neck. A scope with a specialized camera lens made of fiber optic strands is gently fed down the throat and feeds back images to a monitor. This provides a clear view of the throat and larynx. Signs of LPR include redness, swelling, and obvious irritation. Other, more invasive tests, such as fibre-optic transnasal laryngoscopy, 24-hour ambulatory dual probe pHmetry, pharyngeal pHmetry, transnasal esophagoscopy (TNE) and biopsy may be used. A noninvasive test for diagnosis of LPR is the collection of refluxate where the refluxed material is collected and analyzed. Another noninvasive diagnostic test that can be used is an empirical trial of proton-pump inhibitor therapy; however, this test is mostly successful in diagnosing GERD.

There is no agreed-upon assessment technique to identify LPR in children. Of the debated diagnostic tools, multichannel intraluminal impedance with pH monitoring (MII-pH) is used as it recognizes both acid and non-acid reflux. A more common technique that is used is 24-hour dual probe pH monitoring. Both of these tools are expensive and are therefore not widely used.

Identifying and treatment the underlying malignancy constitutes an uptime approach. Topical 5-fluorouracil may occasionally be help, as may oral retinoids, topical steroids, vitamin A acid, urea, salicylic acid, podophyllotoxin, and cryodestruction employing liquid.

OPA has been found in most countries where sheep are farmed, with the exception of Australia and New Zealand. OPA has been eradicated in Iceland.

No breed or sex of sheep appears to be predisposed to OPA. Most affected sheep show signs at 2 to 4 years of age.

OPA is not a notifiable disease, and therefore it is difficult to assess its prevalence.

There is low or very-low quality evidence that probiotics may be better than placebo in preventing acute URTIs. Vaccination against influenza viruses, adenoviruses, measles, rubella, "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "Haemophilus influenzae", diphtheria, "Bacillus anthracis", and "Bordetella pertussis" may prevent them from infecting the URT or reduce the severity of the infection.

According to a Cochrane review, single oral dose of nasal decongestant in the common cold is modestly effective for the short term relief of congestion in adults; however, "there is insufficient data on the use of decongestants in children." Therefore, decongestants are not recommended for use in children under 12 years of age with the common cold. Oral decongestants are also contraindicated in patients with hypertension, coronary artery disease, and history of bleeding strokes.

Tracheobronchopathia osteochondroplastica (TO) is a rare benign disease of unknown cause, in which multiple cartilaginous or bony submucosal nodules project into the trachea and proximal bronchi. The nodules usually spare the posterior wall of the airway because they are of cartilaginous origin, while the posterior wall of the airway is membranous (does not contain cartilage). This is as opposed to tracheobronchial amyloidosis, which does not spare the posterior wall.

It usually occurs in men around their fifth decade of life, as opposed to tracheobronchial papillomatosis due to HPV infection, which usually occurs in younger patients. TO can cause airway obstruction, bleeding and chronic cough. Treatment involves the use of bronchodilators, and physical dilatation by bronchoscopy. The patients are also more prone to post-obstructive pneumonia and chronic lung infection in severe cases.

The differential of TO includes amyloidosis, which is typically circumferential, papillomatosis, though this usually occurs in younger patients and can cause lung cavitation when disseminated, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, though this is circumferential as well and often involves distal lung cavitation as well. Relapsing polychondritis can also spare the posterior wall, though it is not typically nodular in appearance.

Oral florid papillomatosis is a condition characterized by a white mass resembling a cauliflower covering the tongue and extending onto other portions of the mucous membranes. This is a type of verrucous carcinoma.

Management of symptoms for patients within this subgroup of the GERD spectrum is difficult. Once these patients are identified, behavioural and dietary changes are advised. Dietary modifications may include limiting the intake of chocolate, caffeine, acidic food and liquids, gaseous beverages and foods high in fat. Behavioral changes may include weight loss, cessation of smoking, limiting alcohol consumption and avoiding the ingestion of food shortly before bed. Lifestyle changes in children diagnosed with LPR include dietary modifications to avoid foods that will aggravate reflux (e.g., chocolate or acidic and spicy food), altering positioning (e.g., sleeping on your side), modifying the textures of foods (e.g., thickening feeds to heighten awareness of the passing bolus), and eliminating the intake of food before bed.

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are the leading pharmaceutical intervention chosen for the relief and reduction of LPR and are typically recommended for ongoing use twice a day for a period of 3–6 months. PPIs have been shown to be ineffective in very young children and are of uncertain efficacy in older children, for whom their use has been discouraged. While PPIs may provide limited clinical benefits in some adults, there is insufficient evidence to support routine use. Many studies show that PPIs are not more effective than placebos in treating LPR.

When medical management fails, Nissen fundoplication can be offered. However, patients should be advised that surgery may not result in complete elimination of LPR symptoms and even with immediate success, recurrence of symptoms later on is still possible.

One way to assess treatment outcomes for LPR is through the use of voice quality measures. Both subjective and objective measures of voice quality can be used to assess treatment outcomes. Subjective measures include scales such as the Grade, Roughness, Breathiness, Asthenia, Strain Scale (GRBAS); the Reflux Symptom Index; the Voice Handicap Index (VHI); and a voice symptom scale. Objective measures often rely on acoustic parameters such as jitter, shimmer, signal-to-noise ratio, and fundamental frequency, among others. Aerodynamic measures such as vital capacity and maximum phonation time (MPT) have also been used as an objective measure. However, there is not yet a consensus on how best to use the measures or which measures are best to assess treatment outcomes for LPR.

Recurrent sinus and lung infections can lead to the development of chronic lung disease. Such infections should be treated with appropriate antibiotics to prevent and limit lung injury. Administration of antibiotics should be considered when children and adults have prolonged respiratory symptoms (greater than 7 days), even following what was presumed to have been a viral infection. To help prevent respiratory illnesses from common respiratory pathogens, annual influenza vaccinations should be given and pneumococcal vaccines should be administered when appropriate. Antibiotic treatment should also be considered in children with chronic coughs that are productive of mucous, those who do not respond to aggressive pulmonary clearance techniques and in children with muco-purulent secretions from the sinuses or chest. A wet cough can also be associated with chronic aspiration which should be ruled out through proper diagnostic studies, however aspiration and respiratory infections are not necessarily exclusive of each other. In children and adults with bronchiectasis, chronic antibiotic therapy should be considered to slow chronic lung disease progression.

Culturing of the sinuses may be needed to direct antibiotic therapy. This can be done by an Ear Nose and Throat (ENT) specialist. In addition, diagnostic bronchoscopy may be necessary in people who have recurrent pneumonias, especially those who do not respond or respond incompletely to a course of antibiotics.

Clearance of bronchial secretions is essential for good pulmonary health and can help limit injury from acute and chronic lung infections. Children and adults with increased bronchial secretions can benefit from routine chest therapy using the manual method, an a cappella device or a chest physiotherapy vest. Chest physiotherapy can help bring up mucous from the lower bronchial tree, however an adequate cough is needed to remove secretions. In people who have decreased lung reserve and a weak cough, use of an insufflator-exsufflator (cough-assist) device may be useful as a maintenance therapy or during acute respiratory illnesses to help remove bronchial secretions from the upper airways. Evaluation by a Pulmonology specialist however, should first be done to properly assess patient suitability.

Children and adults with chronic dry cough, increased work of breathing (fast respiratory rate, shortness of breath at rest or with activities) and absence of an infectious process to explain respiratory symptoms should be evaluated for interstitial lung disease or another intrapulmonary process. Evaluation by a Pulmonologist and a CT scan of the chest should be considered in individuals with symptoms of interstitial lung disease or to rule other non-infectious pulmonary processes. People diagnosed with interstitial lung disease may benefit from systemic steroids.

Long-term antibiotics, while they decrease rates of infection during treatment, have an unknown effect on long-term outcomes such as hearing loss. This method of prevention has been associated with emergence of antibiotic-resistant otitic bacteria. They are thus not recommended.

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV) in early infancy, decreases the risk of acute otitis media in healthy infants. PCV is recommended for all children, and, if implemented broadly, PCV would have a significant public health benefit. Influenza vaccine is recommended annually for all children. PCV does not appear to decrease the risk of otitis media when given to high-risk infants or for older children who have previously experienced otitis media.

Risk factors such as season, allergy predisposition and presence of older siblings are known to be determinants of recurrent otitis media and persistent middle-ear effusions (MEE). History of recurrence, environmental exposure to tobacco smoke, use of daycare, and lack of breastfeeding have all been associated with increased risk of development, recurrence, and persistent MEE. Thus, cessation of smoking in the home should be encouraged, daycare attendance should be avoided or daycare facilities with the fewest attendees should be recommended, and breastfeeding should be promoted.

There is some evidence that breastfeeding for the first year of life is associated with a reduction in the number and duration of OM infections. Pacifier use, on the other hand, has been associated with more frequent episodes of AOM.

Evidence does not support zinc supplementation as an effort to reduce otitis rates except maybe in those with severe malnutrition such as marasmus.

Antibiotics do not help the many lower respiratory infections which are caused by parasites or viruses. While acute bronchitis often does not require antibiotic therapy, antibiotics can be given to patients with acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. The indications for treatment are increased dyspnoea, and an increase in the volume or purulence of the sputum. The treatment of bacterial pneumonia is selected by considering the age of the patient, the severity of the illness and the presence of underlying disease. Amoxicillin and doxycycline are suitable for many of the lower respiratory tract infections seen in general practice.

Woodring et al. (1991) suggested the following diagnostic criteria for tracheomegaly in adults based on chest radiography:

- Adult Males: Tracheal transverse diameter > 25 mm and sagittal diameter > 27 mm.

- Adult Females: Tracheal transverse diameter > 21 mm and sagittal diameter > 23 mm.

This disease is caused by problems in the circulatory system, so when it is presented, in the beginning it is important to follow several recommendations. The person needs to keep the legs elevated as much as possible to help the return of the blood. Whenever sitting down, the person needs to keep the legs on a foot stool. At night it is advisable to sleep with a pillow under the lower legs. In the evening, t is not unusual for legs to be swollen. The volume of the lower leg can increase to up to 100ml after a long working day or up to 200ml after a long-haul flight without moving.

In the example of the 41-year-old Japanese man the lesions were much improved by washing and topical use of corticosteroids for two months, also oral antibiotics like cephalexin are used if cellulitis is present. Moist exudative inflammation and moist ulcers respond to tepid wet compresses of Burow’s solution or just saline or water for 30 to 60 minutes several times a day. But in worse cases, edema that does not disappear spontaneously within a few hours or after a walk, is described as pathological, so it needs to have a special treatment. It is very important to say that Papillamitosis, bilateral and marked edema with few symptoms is mostly caused by the systemic circulation (heart, kidneys, liver).

Papillamitosis is associated, as has been mentioned before, with symptoms and/or clinical signs such as dilated superficial veins, varicose veins and changes in the skin. Edema and its complication Papillamitosis are only partially reversible and soon becomes hard, which is mainly confirmed on palpation. All skin structures are affected and this is characterized by the term. Lymphoedema may develop in many cases accompanied by acral thickening of the skin folds, hyperkeratosis and papillomatosis.

Vaccination helps prevent bronchopneumonia, mostly against influenza viruses, adenoviruses, measles, rubella, streptococcus pneumoniae, haemophilus influenzae, diphtheria, bacillus anthracis, chickenpox, and bordetella pertussis.

The diagnosis of A-T is usually suspected by the combination of neurologic clinical features (ataxia, abnormal control of eye movement, and postural instability) with telangiectasia and sometimes increased infections, and confirmed by specific laboratory abnormalities (elevated alpha-fetoprotein levels, increased chromosomal breakage or cell death of white blood cells after exposure to X-rays, absence of ATM protein in white blood cells, or mutations in each of the person’s ATM genes).

A variety of laboratory abnormalities occur in most people with A-T, allowing for a tentative diagnosis to be made in the presence of typical clinical features. Not all abnormalities are seen in all patients. These abnormalities include:

- Elevated and slowly increasing alpha-fetoprotein levels in serum after 2 years of age

- Immunodeficiency with low levels of immunoglobulins (especially IgA, IgG subclasses, and IgE) and low number of lymphocytes in the blood

- Chromosomal instability (broken pieces of chromosomes)

- Increased sensitivity of cells to x-ray exposure (cells die or develop even more breaks and other damage to chromosomes)

- Cerebellar atrophy on MRI scan

The diagnosis can be confirmed in the laboratory by finding an absence or deficiency of the ATM protein in cultured blood cells, an absence or deficiency of ATM function (kinase assay), or mutations in both copies of the cell’s ATM gene. These more specialized tests are not always needed, but are particularly helpful if a child’s symptoms are atypical.

It is surgically corrected, with resection of any fistula and anastomosis of any discontinuous segments.

Tracheobronchomegaly is a very rare congenital disorder of the lung primarily characterized by an abnormal widening of the upper airways. The abnormally widened trachea and mainstem bronchi are associated with recurrent lower respiratory tract infection and copious purulent sputum production, eventually leading to bronchiectasis and other respiratory complications.