It has been estimated that VUR is present in more than 10% of the population. Younger children are more prone to VUR because of the relative shortness of the submucosal ureters. This susceptibility decreases with age as the length of the ureters increases as the children grow. In children under the age of 1 year with a urinary tract infection, 70% will have VUR. This number decreases to 15% by the age of 12. Although VUR is more common in males antenatally, in later life there is a definite female preponderance with 85% of cases being female.

The incidence of urethral diverticulum has been increasing in the 2000s, likely due to increasing diagnosis and detection of the condition. It is estimated to be present in as low as 0.02% of all women and as high as 6% of all women, and 40% of women with lower urinary tract symptoms. Most symptomatic urethral diverticula are present in women from 30–60 years old.

84% of periurethral masses are due to urethral diverticula.

A meta-analysis on the influence of voiding position on urodynamics in healthy males and males with LUTS showed that in the sitting position, the residual urine in the bladder was significantly reduced. The other parameters, namely the maximum urinary flow and the voiding time were increased and decreased respectively. For healthy males, no influence was found on these parameters, meaning that they can urinate in either position.

Urethral diverticulum can occur in men, and can cause complications including kidney stones and urinary tract infections.

Birth injuries that result in the formation of fistulas and urinary and fecal incontinence have been found to be strongly associated with economic and cultural factors. Teenagers and women who sustain injuries that develop into ureterovaginal fistulas during childbirth suffer significant social stigma. Ureterovaginal fistulas related to prolonged, obstructed labor are rare in developed nations but are more common in countries where access to emergent obstetrical care is limited.

Urinary tract obstruction as a congenital disorder results in oligohydramnios which in turn can lead to the Potter sequence of atypical physical appearance. Pulmonary hypoplasia is by far the main cause of death in the early neonatal period for children with congenital lower urinary tract obstruction.

Fetal surgery of congenital lower urinary tract obstruction seems to improve survival, according to a randomized yet small study.

Bladder tamponade is obstruction of the bladder outlet due to heavy blood clot formation within it. It generally requires surgery. Such heavy bleeding is usually due to bladder cancer.

Urethral strictures most commonly result from injury, urethral instrumentation, infection, non-infectious inflammatory conditions of the urethra, and after prior hypospadias surgery. Less common causes include congenital urethral strictures and those resulting from malignancy.

Urethral strictures after blunt trauma can generally be divided into two sub-types;

- Pelvic fracture-associated urethral disruption occurs in as many as 15% of severe pelvic fractures. These injuries are typically managed with suprapubic tube placement and delayed urethroplasty 3 months later. Early endoscopic realignment may be used in select cases instead of a suprapubic tube, but these patients should be monitored closely as vast majority of them will require urethroplasty.

- Blunt trauma to the perineum compresses the bulbar urethra against the pubic symphysis, causing a "crush" injury. These patients are typically treated with suprapubic tube and delayed urethroplasty.

Other specific causes of urethral stricture include:

- Instrumentation (e.g., after transurethral resection of prostate, transurethral resection of bladder tumor, or endoscopic kidney surgery)

- Infection (typically with Gonorrhea)

- Lichen sclerosus

- Surgery to address hypospadias can result in a delayed urethral stricture, even decades after the original surgery.

The American Urological Association recommends ongoing monitoring of children with VUR until the abnormality resolves or is no longer clinically significant. The recommendations are for annual evaluation of blood pressure, height, weight, analysis of the urine, and kidney ultrasound.

There are two types of prostatic stent: temporary and permanent.

Although a permanent prostatic stent is not a medical treatment, it falls under the classification of a surgical procedure. Placement of a permanent prostatic stent is carried out as an outpatient treatment under local, topical or spinal anesthesia and usually takes about 15–30 minutes.

A temporary prostatic stent can be inserted in a similar manner to a Foley catheter, requiring only topical anesthesia.

Urethral dilation and other endoscopic approaches such as direct vision internal urethrotomy (DVIU), laser urethrotomy, and self intermittent dilation are the most commonly used treatments for urethral stricture. However, these approaches are associated with low success rates and may worsen the stricture, making future attempts to surgically repair the urethra more difficult.

A Cochrane review found that performing intermittent self-dilatation may confer a reduced risk of recurrent urethral stricture after endoscopic treatment, but the evidence is weak.

Cystitis is a urinary bladder inflammation that results from any one of a number of distinct syndromes. It is most commonly caused by a bacterial infection in which case it is referred to as a urinary tract infection.

Globally, up to 35% of the population over the age of 60 years is estimated to be incontinent.

In 2014, urinary leakage affected between 30% and 40% of people over 65 years of age living in their own homes or apartments in the U.S. Twenty-four percent of older adults in the U.S. have moderate or severe urinary incontinence that should be treated medically.

Bladder control problems have been found to be associated with higher incidence of many other health problems such as obesity and diabetes. Difficulty with bladder control results in higher rates of depression and limited activity levels.

Incontinence is expensive both to individuals in the form of bladder control products and to the health care system and nursing home industry. Injury related to incontinence is a leading cause of admission to assisted living and nursing care facilities. More than 50% of nursing facility admissions are related to incontinence.

A prostatic stent is a stent used to keep open the male urethra and allow the passing of urine in cases of prostatic obstruction and lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). Prostatic obstruction is a common condition with a variety of causes. Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the most common cause, but obstruction may also occur acutely after treatment for BPH such as transurethral needle ablation of the prostate (TUNA), transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), transurethral microwave thermotherapy (TUMT), prostate cancer or after radiation therapy.

Bacteria and yeast, including those naturally occurring as part of the human microbiome, can travel along urinary catheters and cause an infection in the bladder, kidneys, and other organs connected to the urinary tract.

CAUTI can lead to complications such as prostatitis, epididymitis, and orchitis in men, and cystitis, pyelonephritis, gram-negative bacteremia, endocarditis, vertebral osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, endophthalmitis, and meningitis in all patients. Complications associated with CAUTI cause discomfort to the patient, prolonged hospital stay, and increased cost and mortality. It has been estimated that more than 13,000 deaths are associated with UTIs annually. Estimated > 560,000 nosocomial UTIs annually.

Duplicated ureter is the most common renal abnormality, occurring in approximately 1% of the population.

Race: Duplicated ureter is more common in Caucasians than in African-Americans.

Sex: Duplicated ureter is more common in females. However, this may be due to the higher frequency of urinary tract infections in females, leading to a higher rate of diagnosis of duplicated ureter.

Urinary catheters should be inserted using aseptic technique and sterile equipment (including sterile gloves, drape, sponges, antiseptic and sterile solution), particularly in an acute care setting. Hands should be washed before and after catheter insertion. Overall, catheter use should be minimized in all patients, particularly those at higher risk of CAUTI and mortality (e.g. the elderly or those with impaired immunity).

Risk factors for developing a cystocele are:

- an occupation involving or history of heavy lifting

- pregnancy and childbirth

- chronic lung disease/smoking

- family history of cystocele

- exercising incorrectly

- ethnicity (risk is greater for Hispanic and whites)

- hypoestrogenism

- pelvic floor trauma

- connective tissue disorders

- spina bifida

- hysterectomy

- cancer treatment of pelvic organs* childbirth; correlates to the number of births

- forceps delivery

- age

- chronically high intra-abdominal pressures

- chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

- constipation

- obesity

Connective tissue disorders predispose women to developing cystocele and other pelvic organ prolapse. The tensile strength of the vaginal wall decreases when the structure of the collagen fibers change and become weaker.

Bladder stones may occur whenever the kidneys, bladder, or ureters become inflamed, which may occur when the urine becomes too concentrated or when the body becomes dehydrated. Minerals such as calcium and magnesium crystallize into the stones, which then can cause such symptoms as lower back or abdominal pain or difficulty with urination. The use of urinary catheters may cause a bladder stone. Individuals who are paralyzed or are unable to adequately pass urine may require the use of small plastic tubes (catheters) placed into the bladder. The use of these tubes may lead to an infection, which irritates the bladder, resulting in stone formation. Finally, a kidney stone may travel down the ureter into the bladder and become a bladder stone. There is some evidence indicating that chronic irritation of the bladder by retained stones may increase the chance of bladder cancer. Urinary schistosomiasis, a disease caused by the digenean trematode "Schistosoma haematobium", has been implicated in the development of vesical calculi. However, evidence accumulated thus far has not supported this hypothesis.

In women, physical changes resulting from pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause often contribute to stress incontinence. Stress incontinence can worsen during the week before the menstrual period. At that time, lowered estrogen levels may lead to lower muscular pressure around the urethra, increasing chances of leakage. The incidence of stress incontinence increases following menopause, similarly because of lowered estrogen levels. In female high-level athletes, effort incontinence occurs in all sports involving abrupt repeated increases in intra-abdominal pressure that may exceed perineal floor resistance.

Ectopic ureter (or ureteral ectopia) is a medical condition where the ureter, rather than terminating at the urinary bladder, terminates at a different site. In males this site is usually the urethra, in females this is usually the urethra or vagina. It can be associated with renal dysplasia, frequent urinary tract infections, and urinary incontinence (usually continuous drip incontinence). Ectopic ureters are found in 1 of every 2000–4000 patients, and can be difficult to diagnose, but are most often seen on CT scans.

Ectopic ureter is commonly a result of a duplicated renal collecting system, a duplex kidney with 2 ureters. In this case, usually one ureter drains correctly to the bladder, with the duplicated ureter presenting as ectopic.

Urinary catheterization increases the risk for urinary tract infections. The risk of bacteriuria (bacteria in the urine) is between three and six percent per day and prophylactic antibiotics are not effective in decreasing symptomatic infections. The risk of an associated infection can be decreased by catheterizing only when necessary, using aseptic technique for insertion, and maintaining unobstructed closed drainage of the catheter.

Male scuba divers utilizing condom catheters and female divers utilizing external catching devices for their dry suits are also susceptible to urinary tract infections.

Bladder outlet obstruction (or BOO) is a urological condition where the urine flow from the urinary bladder through the urethra is impeded.

Rectovaginal fistulas are often the result of trauma during childbirth (in which case it is known as obstetric fistula) where improper medical interventions are used, such as episiotomy with forceps/vacuum extraction or in situations where there is inadequate health care, such as in some developing countries. Rectovaginal fistula is said to be known as the leading cause in maternal death in developing countries. Risk factors include prolonged labour, difficult instrumental delivery and paramedian episiotomy. Rates in Eritrea are estimated as high as 350 per 100,000 vaginal births. Fistulas can also develop as a result of physical trauma to either the vagina or anus, including from rape. Women with rectovaginal fistulae are often stigmatized in developing countries, and become outcasts.

Rectovaginal fistula can also be a symptom of various diseases, including infection by lymphogranuloma venereum, or the unintended result of surgery, such as episiotomy or sexual reassignment surgery. They may present as a complication of vaginal surgery, including vaginal hysterectomy. They are a recognized presentation of rectal carcinoma or rarely diverticular disease of the bowel or Crohn's disease. They are seen rarely after radiotherapy treatment for cervical cancer.

In addition to weight loss and exercise there are some behavioral changes that can improve stress incontinence. First decrease the amount of liquid that you are ingesting, and avoid drinking caffeinated beverages because they irritate the bladder. Spicy foods, carbonated beverages, alcohol and citrus also irritate the bladder and should be avoided. Quitting smoking can also improve stress incontinence because smoking irritates the bladder and can make you cough (putting stress on the bladder).