The birth defect affects men and women equally, and is not limited to any racial group. It is not certain if it is genetic in nature, although testing is ongoing. There is some evidence that it may be associated with a translocation at t(8;14)(q22.3;q13). Some researchers have suggested AGGF1 has an association.

The causes for PWS are either genetic or unknown. Some cases are a direct result of the RASA1 gene mutations. And individuals with RASA1 can be identified because this genetic mutation always causes multiple capillary malformations. PWS displays an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. This means that one copy of the damaged or altered gene is sufficient to elicit PWS disorder. In most cases, PWS can occur in people that have no family history of the condition. In such cases the mutation is sporadic. And for patients with PWS with the absence of multiple capillary mutations, the causes are unknown.

According to Boston’s Children Hospital, no known food, medications or drugs can cause PWS during pregnancy. PWS is not transmitted from person to person. But it can run in families and can be inherited. PWS effects both males and females equally and as of now no racial predominance is found

At the moment, there are no known measures that can be taken in order to prevent the onset of the disorder. But Genetic Testing Registry can be great resource for patients with PWS as it provides information of possible genetic tests that could be done to see if the patient has the necessary mutations. If PWS is sporadic or does not have RASA1 mutation then genetic testing will not work and there is not a way to prevent the onset of PWS.

According to the National Human Genome Research Institute, Poland syndrome affects males three times as often as females and affects the right side of the body twice as often as the left. The incidence is estimated to range from one in 7,000 to one in 100,000 live births.

The cause of Poland syndrome is unknown. However, an interruption of the embryonic blood supply to the arteries that lie under the collarbone (subclavian arteries) at about the 46th day of embryonic development is the prevailing theory.

The subclavian arteries normally supply blood to embryonic tissues that give rise to the chest wall and hand. Variations in the site and extent of the disruption may explain the range of signs and symptoms that occur in Poland syndrome. Abnormality of an embryonic structure called the apical ectodermal ridge, which helps direct early limb development, may also be involved in this disorder.

Congenital limb deformities are congenital musculoskeletal disorders which primarily affect the upper and lower limbs.

An example is polydactyly.

In anatomy, a persistent left superior vena cava (PLSVC) is the most common variation of the thoracic venous system, is prevalent in 0.3% of the population, and an embryologic remnant that results from a failure to involute.

There is disagreement as to how cases of KTS should be classified if there is an arteriovenous fistula present. Although several authorities have suggested that the term Parkes-Weber syndrome is applied in those cases, ICD-10 currently uses the term "Klippel–Trénaunay–Weber syndrome".

The prognosis is favorable in most patients with an isolated cutaneous abnormality. In the majority of cases, both the vivid red marking and the difference in circumference of the extremities regress spontaneously during the first year of life. It is theorized that this may be due to the normal maturation process, with thickening of the epidermis and dermis. Improvements for some patients can continue for up to 10 years, while in other cases, the marbled skin may persist for the patient's lifetime.

One study reported an improvement in lesions in 46% of patients within 3 years. If CMTC persists into adulthood, it can result in complaints due to paresthesia, increased sensitivity to cold and pain, and the formation of ulcers.

Few reports included long-term follow up of CMTC into adolescence and adulthood. While about 50% of patients seem to show definite improvement in the reticular vascular pattern, the exact incidence and cause of persistent cases are unknown.

Usually observed at birth or shortly thereafter in 94% of patients, in other reports, patients did not develop skin lesions until 3 months or even 2 years after birth. Females are typically affected more often than males (64%).

In PLSVC, the left brachiocephalic vein does not develop fully and the left upper limb and head & neck drain into the right atrium via the coronary sinus.

The variation, in isolation, is considered benign, but is very frequently associated with cardiac abnormalities (e.g. ventricular septal defect, atrioventricular septal defect) that have a significant mortality and morbidity. It is more frequent in patients with congenital heart defects.

According to NIH clinical trials.gov, research on the port-wine stain and its relation to polymorphisms of RASA1 has commenced in November 2010 and expected to end in November 2019. The purpose of the study is to assess how the port-wine stains can lead to complex syndromes such as PWS. Currently there is little knowledge about the epidemiology of the stains and how they progress with the disease. The research is ongoing and the results are yet to be published.

In an another review published in July 2017 (discussed in treatments and prognosis), Banzic et. al. discussed clinical findings that embolization works really well in patients with PWS. Also, embolization along with surgical resection that targets arteriovenous malformations reliably leads to significant clinical improvements.

This not known with certainty but is estimated to be about one per million. It appears to be more common in females than males.

Hemifacial hypertrophy (also termed facial hemihypertrophy, facial hemihyperplasia, or Friedreich's disease) abbreviated as (HFH) is rare congenital disease characterized by unilateral enlargement of the head and teeth. It is classified as true HFH (THFH) with unilateral enlargement of the viscerocranium, and partial HFH (PHFH) in which not all structures are enlarged. Hemifacial hypertrophy can cause a wide spectrum of defects or may involve only muscle or bone. it is usually treated surgically. It is believed to be a minor form of hemihypertrophy.

The overall prognosis is excellent in most cases. Most children with Adams–Oliver syndrome can likely expect to have a normal life span. However, individuals with more severe scalp and cranial defects may experience complications such as hemorrhage and meningitis, leading to long-term disability.

When an individual is born with phocomelia due to drugs or pharmaceuticals, it is known as thalidomide syndrome. The symptoms of thalidomide syndrome are defined by absent or shortened limbs; causing flipper hands and feet. According to Anthony J Perri III, and Sylvia Hsu they can additionally receive:

- Palsy disorder of the face

- Ear and eye abnormalities; resulting in limited/complete loss of hearing or sight

- Gastrointestinal and genitourinary tract disorders

- Ingrown genitalia

- Undeveloped/missing lungs

- Distorted digestive tract, heart, kidney

- disorders to the limbs

The infants that were exposed to thalidomide during development phases had a 40% chance of survival. The McMredie-McBride hypothesis explains that the limbs of the infants become malformed as a result of the thalidomide harming the neural tissue—simply because the neural tissue has such a large impact on formation and development of the limbs.

There are several potential challenges associated with routine screening for HCM in the United States. First, the U.S. athlete population of 15 million is almost twice as large as Italy's estimated athlete population. Second, these events are rare, with fewer than 100 deaths in the U.S. due to HCM in competitive athletes per year, or about 1 death per 220,000 athletes. Lastly, genetic testing would provide a definitive diagnosis; however, due to the numerous HCM-causing mutations, this method of screening is complex and is not cost-effective. Therefore, genetic testing in the United States is limited to individuals who exhibit clear symptoms of HCM, and their family members. This ensures that the test is not wasted on detecting other causes of ventricular hypertrophy (due to its low sensitivity), and that family members of the individual are educated on the potential risk of being carriers of the mutant gene(s).

This syndrome is associated with microcephaly, arthrogryposis and cleft palate and various craniofacial, respiratory, neurological and limb abnormalities, including bone and joint defects of the upper limbs, adducted thumbs, camptodactyly and talipes equinovarus or calcaneovalgus. It is characterized by craniosynostosis, and myopathy in association with congenital generalized hypertrichosis.

Patients with the disease are considered intellectually disabled. Most die in childhood. Patients often suffer from respiratory difficulties such as pneumonia, and from seizures due to dysmyelination in the brain's white matter. It has been hypothesized that the Moro reflex (startle reflex in infants) may be a tool in detecting the congenital clapsed thumb early in infancy. The thumb normally extends as a result of this reflex.

The epidemiology of pulmonary valve stenosis can be summed up by the congenital aspect which is the majority of cases, in broad terms PVS is rare in the general population.

Adducted thumb syndrome recessive form is a rare disease affecting multiple systems causing malformations of the palate, thumbs, and upper limbs. The name Christian syndrome derives from Joe. C. Christian, the first person to describe the condition. Inheritance is believed to be autosomal recessive, caused by mutation in the CHST14 (carbohydrate sulfotransferase 14) gene.

Phocomelia is a condition that involves malformations of the arms and legs. Although many factors can cause phocomelia, the prominent roots come from the use of the drug thalidomide and from genetic inheritance. Occurrence in an individual results in various abnormalities to the face, limbs, ears, nose, vessels and many other underdevelopments. Although operations may improve some abnormalities, many are not surgically treatable due to the lack of nerves and other related structures.

The term is from Ancient Greek φώκη "phōkē", "seal (animal)" + "-o-" interfix + μέλος "melos", "limb" + English suffix "-ia") is an extremely rare congenital disorder involving malformation of the limbs (dysmelia). Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire coined the term in 1836.

Möbius syndrome results from the underdevelopment of the VI and VII cranial nerves. The VI cranial nerve controls lateral eye movement, and the VII cranial nerve controls facial expression.

The causes of Möbius syndrome are poorly understood. Möbius syndrome is thought to result from a vascular disruption (temporary loss of bloodflow) in the brain during prenatal development. There could be many reasons that a vascular disruption leading to Möbius syndrome might occur. Most cases do not appear to be genetic. However, genetic links have been found in a few families. Some maternal trauma may result in impaired or interrupted blood flow (ischemia) or lack of oxygen (hypoxia) to a developing fetus. Some cases are associated with reciprocal translocation between chromosomes or maternal illness. In the majority of cases of Möbius syndrome in which autosomal dominant inheritance is suspected, sixth and seventh cranial nerve paralysis (palsy) occurs without associated limb abnormalities.

The use of drugs and a traumatic pregnancy may also be linked to the development of Möbius syndrome. The use of the drugs misoprostol or thalidomide by women during pregnancy has been linked to the development of Möbius syndrome in some cases. Misoprostol is used to induce abortions in Brazil and Argentina as well as in the United States. Misoprostol abortions are successful 90% of the time, meaning that 10% of the time the pregnancy continues. Studies show that the use of misoprostal during pregnancy increases the risk of developing Möbius syndrome by a factor of 30. While this is a dramatic increase in risk, the incidence of Möbius syndrome without misoprostal use is estimated at one in 50000 to 100000 births (making the incidence of Möbius syndrome with misoprostol use, less than one in 1000 births). The use of cocaine (which also has vascular effects) has been implicated in Möbius syndrome.

Some researchers have suggested that the underlying problem of this disorder could be congenital hypoplasia or agenesis of the cranial nerve nuclei. Certain symptoms associated with Möbius syndrome may be caused by incomplete development of facial nerves, other cranial nerves, and other parts of the central nervous system.

AOS is a rare genetic disorder and the annual incidence or overall prevalence of AOS is unknown. Approximately 100 individuals with this disorder have been reported in the medical literature.

Myostatin-related muscle hypertrophy (or myotonic hypertrophy) is a rare genetic condition characterized by reduced body fat and increased skeletal muscle size. Affected individuals have up to twice the usual amount of muscle mass in their bodies. They also tend to have increased muscle strength. Myostatin-related muscle hypertrophy is not known to cause medical problems, and affected individuals are intellectually normal. The prevalence of this condition is unknown.

Mutations in the "MSTN" gene cause myostatin-related muscle hypertrophy. The "MSTN" gene provides instructions for making a protein called myostatin, which is active in muscles used for movement (skeletal muscles) both before and after birth. This protein normally restrains muscle growth, ensuring that muscles do not grow too large. Mutations that reduce the production of functional myostatin lead to an overgrowth of muscle tissue. Myostatin-related muscle hypertrophy has a pattern of inheritance known as incomplete autosomal dominance. People with a mutation in both copies of the gene in each cell (homozygotes) have significantly increased muscle mass and strength. People with a mutation in one copy of the "MSTN" gene in each cell (heterozygotes) also have increased muscle bulk, but to a lesser degree.

Researchers at Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health in China have edited the genome of beagles to create double the amount of muscle.

Concentric hypertrophy is a hypertrophic growth of a hollow organ without overall enlargement, in which the walls of the organ are thickened and its capacity or volume is diminished.

Sarcomeres are added in parallel, as for example occurs in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

In the heart, concentric hypertrophy is related to increased pressure overload of the heart, often due to hypertension and/or aortic stenosis. The consequence is a decrease in ventricular compliance and diastolic dysfunction, followed eventually by ventricular failure and systolic dysfunction.

Laplace's law for a sphere states wall stress (T) is proportionate to the product of the transmural pressure (P) and cavitary radius (r) and inversely proportionate to wall thickness (W): In response to the pressure overload left ventricular wall thickness markedly increases—while the cavitary radius remains relatively unchanged. These compensatory changes, termed "concentric hypertrophy," reduce the increase in wall tension observed in aortic stenosis.

Common causes include:

- Pulmonary hypertension

- Tetralogy of Fallot

- Pulmonary valve stenosis

- Pulmonic regurgitation

- Ventricular septal defect (VSD)

- High altitude

- Cardiac fibrosis

- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

- Athletic heart syndrome