Cerebral vasospasm is the prolonged, intense vasoconstriction of the larger conducting arteries in the subarachnoid space which is initially surrounded by a clot.

Significant narrowing develops gradually over the first few days after the aneurysmal rupture. This spasm usually is maximal in about a week's time following haemorrhage.

Vasospasm is the one of the leading causes of death after the aneurysmal rupture along with the effect of the initial haemorrhage and later bleeding.

Hypercoagulability in pregnancy, particularly due to inheritable thrombophilia, can lead to placental vascular thrombosis. This can in turn lead to complications like early-onset hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, pre-eclampsia and small for gestational age infants (SGA). Among other causes of hypercoagulability, Antiphospholipid syndrome has been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes including recurrent miscarriage. Deep vein thrombosis has an incidence of one in 1,000 to 2,000 pregnancies in the United States, and is the second most common cause of maternal death in developed countries after bleeding.

Unfractionated heparin, low molecular weight heparin, warfarin (not to be used during pregnancy) and aspirin remain the basis of antithrombotic treatment and prophylaxis both before and during pregnancy.

While the consensus among physicians is the safety of the mother supersedes the safety of the developing fetus, changes in the anticoagulation regimen during pregnancy can be performed to minimize the risks to the developing fetus while maintaining therapeutic levels of anticoagulants in the mother.

The main issue with anticoagulation in pregnancy is that warfarin, the most commonly used anticoagulant in chronic administration, is known to have teratogenic effects on the fetus if administered in early pregnancy. Still, there seems to be no teratogenic effect of warfarin before six weeks of gestation. However, unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparin do not cross the placenta.

Vascular occlusion is a blockage of a blood vessel, usually with a clot. It differs from thrombosis in that it can be used to describe any form of blockage, not just one formed by a clot. When it occurs in a major vein, it can, in some cases, cause deep vein thrombosis. The condition is also relatively common in the retina, and can cause partial or total loss of vision. An occlusion can often be diagnosed using Doppler sonography (a form of ultrasound).

Some medical procedures, such as embolisation, involve occluding a blood vessel to treat a particular condition. This can be to reduce pressure on aneurysms (weakened blood vessels) or to restrict a haemorrhage. It can also be used to reduce blood supply to tumours or growths in the body, and therefore restrict their development. Occlusion can be carried out using a ligature; by implanting small coils which stimulate the formation of clots; or, particularly in the case of cerebral aneurysms, by clipping.

10-15% of intracranial AV malformations are DAVFs. There is a higher preponderance in females (61-66%), and typically patients are in their fourth or fifth generation of life. DAVFs are rarer in children.

A breast hematoma may appear due to direct trauma to the breast, for example from a sports injury or a road accident, for example a vehicle collision in which a seat belt injury occurs.

Hematoma can also be a consequence of breast surgery, usually due to post-operative bleeding. Bleeding may occur shortly after the intervention or a number of days later and can occur for cosmetic surgery (for example breast reduction or breast enhancement) and for non-cosmetic surgery (for example lymph node removal, lumpectomy, or mastectomy). More rarely, hematoma can result from breast biopsy.

Rarely, a breast hematoma can also occur spontaneously due to a rupture of blood vessels in the breast, especially in persons with coagulopathy or after long-term use of blood-thinning drugs such as aspirin or ibuprofen.

Small breast hematomas often resolve on their own within several days or weeks by means of reabsorption of the blood. Larger hematomas are more likely to lead to inflammation or fibrosis.

Breast hematomas can sometimes lead to skin discoloration, inflammation, or fever. When a hematoma resolves, it may become fibrotic, leaving behind scar tissue. A resolving hematoma may liquify to form a seroma.

Post-surgical breast hematomas can also impede wound healing and therefore impact the cosmetic outcome. Hematomas are furthermore one of the risk factors for breast surgical site infections. There is preliminary evidence that, after breast implant surgery, the presence of hematoma increases the risk of developing capsular contracture.

In mammography screening, scar tissue resulting from a breast hematoma can easily be confused with tumor tissue, especially in the first years following surgery. Ultimately, fat necrosis may occur in the concerned region of the breast.

A dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF), is an abnormal direct connection (fistula) between a meningeal artery and a meningeal vein or dural venous sinus. In cases where there are multiple fistulas, the related term dural arteriovenous malformation (DAVF) is used.

Rasmussen's aneurysm is a pulmonary artery aneurysm adjacent or within a tuberculous cavity. It occurs in up to 5% of patients with such lesions. It may lead to rupture and haemorrhage. It is named after Fritz Valdemar Rasmussen. It is quoted as the cause of hemoptysis in tuberculosis patients.

While the "classic" terminology relates the lesion to cavitary tuberculosis, the term is now used for the anatomic aneurysm associated with other destructive lung lesions. Even when the pulmonary aneurysm is present, the actual bronchial bleeding may be from the bronchial artery, rather than from the pulmonary artery.

Emergency exploratory laparotomy with cesarean delivery accompanied by fluid and blood transfusion are indicated for the management of uterine rupture. Depending on the nature of the rupture and the condition of the patient, the uterus may be either repaired or removed (cesarean hysterectomy). Delay in management places both mother and child at significant risk.

Both sex are equally affected

Any age group can develop a parapheryngeal abscess but it is most commonly seen in children and adolescents. Adults who are immunocompromised are also at high risk.

Infection can occur from:

- Pharynx: acute and chronic infection of tonsil and adenoids

- Teeth: dental infection occurs from lower last molar tooth

- Ear: bezold abscess and petrositis

- Other space: infection of parotid retropharyngeal space

- External trauma: penetrating injuries of neck, injection of local anaesthetic

A uterine scar from a previous cesarean section is the most common risk factor. (In one review, 52% had previous cesarean scars.) Other forms of uterine surgery that result in full-thickness incisions (such as a myomectomy), dysfunctional labor, labor augmentation by oxytocin or prostaglandins, and high parity may also set the stage for uterine rupture. In 2006, an extremely rare case of uterine rupture in a first pregnancy with no risk factors was reported.

There is debate as to the cause, although hematogenous seeding of the offending organism is favored as well as direct spread. It is important to differentiate between spontaneous discitis which is usually from hematologic spread from a urinary or respiratory infection versus that from a post-operative complication which usually involves skin flora such as staph aureus.

It can be caused due to spinal tuberculosis and spread along spinal ligament to involve the adjacent anterior vertebral bodies, causing angulation of the vertebrae with subsequent kyphosis.

The cause may be aseptic.

This condition is most common after age 50.

It is more prevalent in females.

There is a hereditary role.

It has been seen in smokers, those who have chronic constipation and in people with occupations which necessitate long periods of standing such as lecturers, nurses, conductors (musical and bus), stage actors, umpires (cricket, javelin, etc.), the Queen's guard, lectern orators, security guards, etc.

Commonly by bacteria – streptococci, spore and non-spore forming anaerobes, etc.

Factors affecting the development of phlegmons are virulence of bacteria and immunity strength.

Varicose veins are more common in women than in men, and are linked with heredity. Other related factors are pregnancy, obesity, menopause, aging, prolonged standing, leg injury and abdominal straining. Varicose veins are unlikely to be caused by crossing the legs or ankles. Less commonly, but not exceptionally, varicose veins can be due to other causes, as post phlebitic obstruction or incontinence, venous and arteriovenous malformations.

It is often caused by venous reflux. More recent research has shown the importance of pelvic vein reflux (PVR) in the development of varicose veins. Hobbs showed varicose veins in the legs could be due to ovarian vein reflux and Lumley and his team showed recurrent varicose veins could be due to ovarian vein reflux. Whiteley and his team reported that both ovarian and internal iliac vein reflux causes leg varicose veins and that this condition affects 14% of women with varicose veins or 20% of women who have had vaginal delivery and have leg varicose veins. In addition, evidence suggests that failing to look for, and treat pelvic vein reflux can be a cause of recurrent varicose veins.

There is increasing evidence for the role of incompetent perforator veins (or "perforators") in the formation of varicose veins. and recurrent varicose veins.

Varicose veins could also be caused by hyperhomocysteinemia in the body, which can degrade and inhibit the formation of the three main structural components of the artery: collagen, elastin and the proteoglycans. Homocysteine permanently degrades cysteine disulfide bridges and lysine amino acid residues in proteins, gradually affecting function and structure. Simply put, homocysteine is a 'corrosive' of long-living proteins, i.e. collagen or elastin, or lifelong proteins, i.e. fibrillin. These long-term effects are difficult to establish in clinical trials focusing on groups with existing artery decline. Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome and Parkes-Weber syndrome are relevant for differential diagnosis.

Another cause is chronic alcohol consumption due to the vasodilatation side effect in relation to gravity and blood viscosity.

This large, atypical haemangioma of the liver may present with abdominal pain or fullness due to haemorrhage, thrombosis or mass effect. It may also lead to left ventricular volume overload and heart failure due to the increase in cardiac output which it causes. Further complications are Kasabach-Merritt syndrome, a form of consumptive coagulopathy due to thrombocytopaenia, and rupture.

On average the incidence of nausea or vomiting after general anesthesia ranges between 25 and 30% [Cohen 1994]. Nausea and vomiting can be extremely distressing for patients and is therefore one of their major concerns [Macario 1999]. Vomiting has been associated with major complications such as pulmonary aspiration of gastric content and might endanger surgical outcomes after certain procedures, for example after maxillofacial surgery with wired jaws. Nausea and vomiting can delay discharge and about 1% of patients scheduled for day surgery require unanticipated overnight admission because of uncontrolled postoperative nausea and vomiting.

Systemic features of infection such as increased body temperature (up to 38-40 °C), general fatigue, chills, sweatings, headache, loss of appetite).

Inflammatory signs – dolor (localized pain), calor (increase local tissue temperature), rubor (skin redness/hyperemia), tumor (either clear or non-clear bordered tissue swelling), functio laesa (diminish affected function).

NB: severity of patient condition with phlegmons is directly proportional to the degree of intoxication level i.e. the more severe the condition, the higher the degree of intoxication level.

A noninfectious occurrence of phlegmon can be found in the acute pancreatitis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. The immunosuppressive aspects of this disease and the immunosuppressive medications used to treat it blunt each of the signs of infection.

Penile Revascularization is a specialized vascular-surgical treatment option for Erectile Dysfunction. The 2009 International Consultation on Sexual Dysfunctions recommended that revascularization be limited to nonsmoker, nondiabetic men younger than 55 years of age with isolated stenosis of the internal pudendal artery with absence of venous leak.

Patients with persistent erectile dysfunction after revascularization may benefit from repeat penile duplex ultrasound and pelvic angiography to evalauate the status of the bypass graft and to exclude the presence of a PASS as the cause. The prevalence of an aberrant obturator artery arising from the inferior epigastric artery is approximately 10.5%. If an aberrant obturator artery is visualized arising from the inferior epigastric artery prior to surgical penile revascularization, consideration should be given toward using an alternative source artery or to embolization to avoid the creation of a Penile Artery Shunt Syndrome encountered in this described case.

Causes of increased foetal-maternal haemorrhage are seen as a result of trauma, placental abruption or may be spontaneous with no cause found.

Up to 30 mL of foetal-maternal transfusion may take place with no significant signs or symptoms seen in either mother or foetus. Loss in excess of this may result in significant morbidity and mortality to the fetus. Foetal-maternal haemorrhage is one cause of intrauterine death (IUD).

Antepartum bleeding, also known as antepartum haemorrhage or prepartum hemorrhage, is genital bleeding during pregnancy from the 28th week (sometimes defined as from the 20th week) gestational age to term.

It can be associated with reduced fetal birth weight.

In regard to treatment, it should be considered a medical emergency (regardless of whether there is pain) and medical attention should be sought immediately, as if it is left untreated it can lead to death of the mother and/or fetus.

Treatment usually includes antibiotics, and reducing the mobility of the affected region, either with a back brace or a plaster cast. Without treatment, the patient may form an abscess which may need to be surgically corrected. Due to the poor vascularity of the disc, drugs required for treatment often include potent agents such as Ciprofloxacin along with Vancomycin. Occasionally, oral drugs can be used to treat the infection but it may fail and IV drugs may be required.

If the patient is an adult many surgeons and doctors now recommend moving little and often and within the pain limits of the medication. Discs respond to osmotic pressure therefore movement is beneficial to increase their blood flow and fluid dynamics. This is why disc patients are no longer told to bed rest. In children whether to bed rest or move a little is decided on an individual basis, depending on the site and severity of the discitis.

A cavernous liver haemangioma or hepatic haemangioma is a benign tumour of the liver composed of hepatic endothelial cells. It is the most common liver tumour, and is usually asymptomatic and diagnosed incidentally on radiological imaging. Liver haemangiomas are thought to be congenital in origin. Several subtypes exist, including the giant hepatic haemangioma, which can cause significant complications.