Although previously considered a mere nuisance infection, untreated bacterial vaginosis may cause complications, such as increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections including HIV and pregnancy complications.

It has been shown that HIV-infected women with bacterial vaginosis (BV) are more likely to transmit HIV to their sexual partners than those without BV. Diagnostic criteria for BV have also been associated with a female genital tract factor that induces expression of HIV.

There is evidence of an association between BV and increased rates of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS. BV is associated with up to a six-fold increase in HIV shedding. There is also a correlation between the absence of vaginal lactobacilli and infection by Neisseria gonorrhea and Chlamydia trachomatis. BV is a risk factor for viral shedding and herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. BV may increase the risk of infection with or reactivation of human papillomavirus (HPV).

In addition, bacterial vaginosis an intercurrent disease in pregnancy may increase the risk of pregnancy complications, most notably premature birth or miscarriage.

Pregnant women with BV have a higher risk of chorioamnionitis, miscarriage, preterm birth, premature rupture of membranes, and postpartum endometritis. BV is associated with gynecological and obstetric complications. Data suggest an association between BV, tubal factor infertility, and pelvic inflammatory disease. Women with BV who are treated with in vitro fertilization have a lower implantation rate and higher rates of early pregnancy loss.

Healthy vaginal microbiota consists of species which neither cause symptoms or infections, nor negatively affect pregnancy. It is dominated mainly by Lactobacillus species. BV is defined by the disequilibrium in the vaginal microbiota, with decline in the number of lactobacilli. While the infection involves a number of bacteria, it is believed that most infections start with Gardnerella vaginalis creating a biofilm, which allows other opportunistic bacteria to thrive.

One of the main risks for developing BV is douching, which alters the vaginal flora and predisposes women to developing BV. Douching is strongly discouraged by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and various medical authorities, for this and other reasons.

BV is a risk factor for pelvic inflammatory disease, HIV, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and reproductive and obstetric disorders or negative outcomes. It is possible for sexually inactive persons to develop bacterial vaginosis.

Bacterial vaginosis may sometimes affect women after menopause. Also, subclinical iron deficiency may correlate with bacterial vaginosis in early pregnancy. A longitudinal study published in February 2006, in the "American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology", showed a link between psychosocial stress and bacterial vaginosis persisted even when other risk factors were taken into account. Exposure to the spermicide nonoxynol-9 does not affect the risk of developing bacterial vaginosis.

Having a female partner increases the risk of BV by 60%. The bacteria associated with BV have been isolated from male genitalia. BV microbiota has been found in the penis, coronal sulcus, and male urethra, in the male partners of infected females. Partners who have not been circumcised may act as a ‘reservoir’ increasing the likelihood of acquiring an infection after sexual intercourse. Another mode of transmission of the BV-associated microbiota is to a female sexual partner via skin-to-skin transfer. BV may be transmitted via the perineal enteric bacteria from the microbiota of the female and male genitalia.

Hormonal vaginitis includes atrophic vaginitis usually found in postmenopausal or postpartum women. Sometimes it can occur in young girls before puberty. In these situations the estrogen support of the vagina is poor.

Vaginitis is the disruption of the healthy vaginal microbiota. The vaginal microbiota consists of those organisms which generally do not cause symptoms, infections, and results in good pregnancy outcomes, and is dominated mainly by Lactobacillus species. The disruption of the normal microbiota can cause a vaginal yeast infection. Vaginal yeast infection can affect women of all ages and is very common. The yeast "Candida albicans" is the most common cause of vaginitis. Specific forms of vaginal inflammation include the following types:

Infectious vaginitis accounts for 90% of all cases in reproductive age women:

- Candidiasis: vaginitis caused by proliferation of "Candida albicans", "Candida tropicalis", "Candida krusei"

- Bacterial vaginosis: vaginitis caused by increased growth of "Gardnerella" (a bacterium).

- Aerobic vaginitis

Other less common infections are caused by gonorrhea, chlamydia, "Mycoplasma", herpes, "Campylobacter", improper hygiene, and some parasites, notably "Trichomonas vaginalis". Women who have diabetes develop infectious vaginitis more often than women who do not.

Vaginal infections often have multiple causes (varies between countries between 20 and 40% of vaginal infections), which present challenging cases for treatment. Indeed, when only one cause is treated, the other pathogens can become resistant to treatment and induce relapses and recurrences. Therefore, the key factor is to get a precise diagnosis and treat with broad spectrum anti-infective agents (often also inducing adverse effects).

Further, either a change in pH balance or introduction of foreign bacteria in the vagina can lead to infectious vaginitis. Physical factors that have been claimed to contribute to the development of infections include the following: constantly wet vulva due to tight clothing, chemicals coming in contact with the vagina via scented tampons, antibiotics, birth control pills, or a diet favoring refined sugar and yeast.

A vaginal yeast infection results from overgrowth of candida albicans, or yeast, in the vagina. This is a relatively common infection, with over 75% of women having experienced at least one yeast infection at some point in their life. Risk factors for yeast infections include recent antibiotic use, diabetes, immunosuppression, increased estrogen levels, and use of certain contraceptive devices including intrauterine devices, diaphragms, or sponges. It is not a sexually transmitted infection. Candida vaginal infections are common; an estimated 75% of women will have at least one yeast infection in their lifetime. Vaginal discharge is not always present in yeast infections, but when occurring it is typically odorless, thick, white, and clumpy. Vaginal itching is the most common symptom of candida vulvovaginitis. Women may also experience burning, soreness, irritation, pain during urination, or pain during sex. The diagnosis of Candida vulvovaginitis is made by looking at a sample taken from the vagina under the microscope that shows hyphae (yeast), or from a culture. It is important to note that the symptoms described above may be present in other vaginal infections, so microscopic diagnosis or culture is needed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment is with intra-vaginal or oral anti-fungal medications.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is an infection caused by a change in the vaginal flora, which refers to the community of organisms that live in the vagina. It is the most common cause of pathological vaginal discharge in women of childbearing age and accounts for 40–50% of cases. In BV, the vagina experiences a decrease in a bacterium called lactobacilli, and a relative increase in a multitude of anaerobic bacteria with the most predominant being "Gardnerella vaginalis". This imbalance results in the characteristic vaginal discharge experienced by patients with BV. The discharge in BV has a characteristic strong fishy odor, which is caused by the relative increase in anaerobic bacteria.[1] The discharge is typically thin and grey, or occasionally green. It sometimes is accompanied by burning with urination. Itching is rare. The exact reasons for the disruption of vaginal flora leading to BV are not fully known. However, factors associated with BV include antibiotic use, unprotected sex, douching, and using an intrauterine device (IUD). The role of sex in BV is unknown, and BV is not considered an STI. The diagnosis of BV is made by a health care provider based on the appearance of the discharge, discharge pH > 4.5, presence of clue cells under the microscope, and a characteristic fishy odor when the discharge is placed on a slide and combined with potassium hydroxide ("whiff test"). The gold standard for diagnosis is a gram stain showing a relative lack of lactobacilli and a polymicrobial array of gram negative rods, gram variable rods, and cocci. BV may be treated with oral or intravaginal antibiotics, or oral or intravaginal lactobacillus.

Research has shown a link between trichomoniasis and two serious sequelae. Data suggest that:

- Trichomoniasis is associated with increased risk of transmission and infection of HIV.

- Trichomoniasis may cause a woman to deliver a low-birth-weight or premature infant.

- The role of trichomonas infection in causing cervical cancer is unclear, although trichomonas infection may be associated with co-infection with high-risk strains of HPV.

- "T. vaginalis" infection in males has been found to cause asymptomatic urethritis and prostatitis. In the prostate, it may create chronic inflammation that may eventually lead to prostate cancer.

There were about 58 million cases of trichomoniasis in 2013. It is more common in women (2.7%) than males (1.4%). It is the most common non-viral STI in the U.S., with an estimated 3.7 million prevalent cases and 1.1 million new cases per year. It is estimated that 3% of the general U.S. population is infected, and 7.5-32% of moderate-to-high risk (including incarcerated) populations.

Cervicitis can be caused by any of a number of infections, of which the most common are chlamydia and gonorrhea, with chlamydia accounting for approximately 40% of cases. As many half of pregnant women are asymptomatic with a gonorrhea infection of the cervix. "Trichomonas vaginalis" and herpes simplex are less common causes of cervicitis. There is a consistent association of M. genitalium infection and female reproductive tract syndromes. M. genitalium infection is significantly associated with increased risk of cervicitis.

It is not a major issue but is to be resolved as soon as possible. It can be a natural defense mechanism that the vagina uses to maintain its chemical balance, as well as to preserve the flexibility of the vaginal tissue. The term "physiologic leukorrhea" is used to refer to leukorrhea due to estrogen stimulation.

Leukorrhea may occur normally during pregnancy. This is caused by increased bloodflow to the vagina due to increased estrogen. Female infants may have leukorrhea for a short time after birth due to their in-uterine exposure to estrogen.

Leukorrhea is also caused by trichomonads, a group of parasitic protozoan, specifically "Trichomonas vaginalis". Common symptoms of this disease are burning sensation, itching and discharge of frothy substance, thick, white or yellow mucous.

Cervices is inflammation of the uterine cervix. Cervicitis in women has many features in common with urethritis in men and many cases are caused by sexually transmitted infections. Death may occur. Non-infectious causes of cervicitis can include intrauterine devices, contraceptive diaphragms, and allergic reactions to spermicides or latex condoms.

The condition is often confused with vaginismus which is a much simpler condition and easily rectified with simple exercises.

The most common bacterial cause of NGU is "Chlamydia trachomatis", but it can also be caused by "Ureaplasma urealyticum", "Haemophilus vaginalis", "Mycoplasma genitalium", Mycoplasma hominis, Gardnerella vaginalis, Acinetobacter lwoffi, Ac.calcoclaceticus and "E.coli".

The disease is classified as either gonococcal urethritis, caused by "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", or non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU), most commonly caused by "Chlamydia trachomatis". NGU, sometimes called nonspecific urethritis (NSU), has both infectious and noninfectious causes.

Urethritis is part of triad of Reiter's Syndrome.

Other causes include:

- Adenoviridae

- Uropathogenic "Escherichia coli" (UPEC)

- Herpes simplex

- Cytomegalovirus

- "Mycoplasma genitalium"

- Reactive arthritis

- "Trichomonas vaginalis"

- "Ureaplasma urealyticum"

- "Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus"

- "Group B streptococcus"

There are many causes of NGU. This is in part due to the large variety of organisms living in the urinary tract. "Ureaplasma urealyticum" and "Mycoplasma genitalium" are some of the culprits.

NGU is also associated with Reiter's syndrome,in which triad of Arthritis,Conjunctivitis & Urethritis is there.

Risk of some causes of urethritis can be lessened by avoiding unprotected sexual activity, chemicals that could irritate the urethra; this could include detergents or lotions as well as spermicides or contraceptives, and irritation caused by manual manipulation of the urethra.

A sexually transmitted infection present in a pregnant woman may be passed on to the infant before or after birth.

The risks and transmission probabilities of sexually transmitted diseases are summarized by act in the table:

Not all STIs are symptomatic, and symptoms may not appear immediately after infection. In some instances a disease can be carried with no symptoms, which leaves a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Depending on the disease, some untreated STIs can lead to infertility, chronic pain or even death.

The presence of an STI in prepubescent children may indicate sexual abuse.

Spermatoceles can originate as diverticulum from the tubules found in the head of the epididymis. Sperm formation gradually causes the diverticulum to increase in size, causing a spermatocele. They are due to continuity between the epididymis and tunica vaginalis.

They are also believed to result from epididymitis, physical trauma, or vasectomy. Scarring of any part of the epididymis can cause it to become obstructed and in turn form a spermatocele.

Spermatocele () is a retention cyst of a tubule of the rete testis or the head of the epididymis distended with barely watery fluid that contains spermatozoa. Small spermatoceles are relatively common, occurring in an estimated 30 percent of all men. They vary in size from several millimeters to many centimeters. Spermatoceles are generally not painful. However, some men may experience discomfort from larger spermatoceles. They are not cancerous, nor do they cause an increased risk of testicular cancer. Additionally, unlike varicoceles, they do not have a negative impact on fertility.

Torsion is most frequent among adolescents with about 65% of cases presenting between 12–18 years of age. It occurs in about 1 in 4,000 to 1 per 25,000 males per year before 25 years of age; but it can occur at any age, including infancy.

A number of factors have been identified that are linked to a higher risk of a preterm birth such as being less than 18 years of age. Maternal height and weight can play a role.

Further, in the US and the UK, black women have preterm birth rates of 15–18%, more than double than that of the white population. Filipinos are also at high risk of premature birth, and it is believed that nearly 11-15% of Filipinos born in the U.S. (compared to other Asians at 7.6% and whites at 7.8%) are premature. Filipinos being a big risk factor is evidenced with the Philippines being the 8th highest ranking in the world for preterm births, the only non-African country in the top 10. This discrepancy is not seen in comparison to other Asian groups or Hispanic immigrants and remains unexplained.

Pregnancy interval makes a difference as women with a six-month span or less between pregnancies have a two-fold increase in preterm birth. Studies on type of work and physical activity have given conflicting results, but it is opined that stressful conditions, hard labor, and long hours are probably linked to preterm birth.

A history of spontaneous (i.e., miscarriage) or surgical abortion has been associated with a small increase in the risk of preterm birth, with an increased risk with increased number of abortions, although it is unclear whether the increase is caused by the abortion or by confounding risk factors (e.g., socioeconomic status). Increased risk has not been shown in women who terminated their pregnancies medically. Pregnancies that are unwanted or unintended are also a risk factor for preterm birth.

Adequate maternal nutrition is important. Women with a low BMI are at increased risk for preterm birth. Further, women with poor nutrition status may also be deficient in vitamins and minerals. Adequate nutrition is critical for fetal development and a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may help reduce the risk of a preterm delivery. Obesity does not directly lead to preterm birth; however, it is associated with diabetes and hypertension which are risk factors by themselves. To some degree those individuals may have underlying conditions (i.e., uterine malformation, hypertension, diabetes) that persist.

Women with celiac disease have an increased risk of the development of preterm birth. The risk of preterm birth is more elevated when celiac disease remains undiagnosed and untreated.

Marital status is associated with risk for preterm birth. A study of 25,373 pregnancies in Finland revealed that unmarried mothers had more preterm deliveries than married mothers (P=0.001). Pregnancy outside of marriage was associated overall with a 20% increase in total adverse outcomes, even at a time when Finland provided free maternity care. A study in Quebec of 720,586 births from 1990 to 1997 revealed less risk of preterm birth for infants with legally married mothers compared with those with common-law wed or unwed parents.

Genetic make-up is a factor in the causality of preterm birth. Genetics has been a big factor into why Filipinos have a high risk of premature birth as the Filipinos have a large prevalence of mutations that help them be predisposed to premature births. An intra- and transgenerational increase in the risk of preterm delivery has been demonstrated. No single gene has been identified.

Subfertility is associated with preterm birth. Couples who have tried more than 1 year versus those who have tried less than 1 year before achieving a spontaneous conception have an adjusted odds ratio of 1.35 (95% confidence interval 1.22-1.50) of preterm birth. Pregnancies after IVF confers a greater risk of preterm birth than spontaneous conceptions after more than 1 year of trying, with an adjusted odds ratio of 1.55 (95% CI 1.30-1.85).

The use of fertility medication that stimulates the ovary to release multiple eggs and of IVF with embryo transfer of multiple embryos has been implicated as an important factor in preterm birth. Maternal medical conditions increase the risk of preterm birth. Often labor has to be induced for medical reasons; such conditions include high blood pressure, pre-eclampsia, maternal diabetes, asthma, thyroid disease, and heart disease.

In a number of women anatomical issues prevent the baby from being carried to term. Some women have a weak or short cervix (the strongest predictor of premature birth) Women with vaginal bleeding during pregnancy are at higher risk for preterm birth. While bleeding in the third trimester may be a sign of placenta previa or placental abruption – conditions that occur frequently preterm – even earlier bleeding that is not caused by these conditions is linked to a higher preterm birth rate. Women with abnormal amounts of amniotic fluid, whether too much (polyhydramnios) or too little (oligohydramnios), are also at risk.

The mental status of the women is of significance. Anxiety and depression have been linked to preterm birth.

Finally, the use of tobacco, cocaine, and excessive alcohol during pregnancy increases the chance of preterm delivery. Tobacco is the most commonly abused drug during pregnancy and contributes significantly to low birth weight delivery. Babies with birth defects are at higher risk of being born preterm.

Passive smoking and/or smoking before the pregnancy influences the probability of a preterm birth. The World Health Organization published an international study in March 2014.

Presence of anti-thyroid antibodies is associated with an increased risk preterm birth with an odds ratio of 1.9 and 95% confidence interval of 1.1–3.5.

A 2004 systematic review of 30 studies on the association between intimate partner violence and birth outcomes concluded that preterm birth and other adverse outcomes, including death, are higher among abused pregnant women than among non-abused women.

The Nigerian cultural method of abdominal massage has been shown to result in 19% preterm birth among women in Nigeria, plus many other adverse outcomes for the mother and baby. This ought not be confused with massage conducted by a fully trained and licensed massage therapist or by significant others trained to provide massage during pregnancy, which has been shown to have numerous positive results during pregnancy, including the reduction of preterm birth, less depression, lower cortisol, and reduced anxiety.

Torsion is due to a mechanical twisting process. It is also believed that torsion occurring during fetal development can lead to so-called neonatal torsion or vanishing testis, and is one of the causes of an infant being born with monorchism (one testicle).

A hydrocele testis is not generally thought to affect fertility. However, it may be indicative of other factors that may affect fertility.