There is still much debate to whether pulmonary sequestration is a congenital problem or acquired through reccurent pulmonary infection. It is widely believed that extralobar pulmonary sequestrations are a result of prenatal pulmonary malformation while intralobar pulmonary sequestrations can develop due to reccurent pulmonary infections in adolescents and young adults.

Failure to have a pulmonary sequestration removed can lead to a number of complications. These include:

- Hemorrhage that can be fatal.

- The creation of a left-right shunt, where blood flows in a shortcut through the feed off the aorta.

- Chronic infection. Diseases such as bronchiectasis, tuberculosis, aspergillosis, bronchial carcinoid and bronchogenic squamous cell carcinoma.

It is most commonly caused by:

- Oesophageal rupture, for example in Boerhaave syndrome

- Asthma or other conditions leading to alveolar rupture

- Bowel rupture, where air in the abdominal cavity tracts up into the chest.

It has also been associated with:

- "Mycoplasma pneumoniae" pneumonia

- obesity

It can be induced to assist thoracoscopic surgery. It can be caused by a pulmonary barotrauma resulting when a person moves to or from a higher pressure environment, such as when a SCUBA diver, a free-diver or an airplane passenger ascends or descends.

In rare cases, pneumomediastinum may also arise as a result of blunt chest trauma (e.g. car accidents, fights, over pressure of breathing apparatus), while still evolving in the same fashion as the spontaneous form.

Pneumomediastinum is most commonly seen in otherwise healthy young male patients and may not be prefaced by a relevant medical history of similar ailments.

Pulmonary hypoplasia is incomplete development of the lungs, resulting in an abnormally low number or size of bronchopulmonary segments or alveoli. A congenital malformation, it most often occurs secondary to other fetal abnormalities that interfere with normal development of the lungs. Primary (idiopathic) pulmonary hypoplasia is rare and usually not associated with other maternal or fetal abnormalities.

Incidence of pulmonary hypoplasia ranges from 9–11 per 10,000 live births and 14 per 10,000 births. Pulmonary hypoplasia is a relatively common cause of neonatal death. It also is a common finding in stillbirths, although not regarded as a cause of these.

Causes of pulmonary hypoplasia include a wide variety of congenital malformations and other conditions in which pulmonary hypoplasia is a complication. These include congenital diaphragmatic hernia, congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation, fetal hydronephrosis, caudal regression syndrome, mediastinal tumor, and sacrococcygeal teratoma with a large component inside the fetus. Large masses of the neck (such as cervical teratoma) also can cause pulmonary hypoplasia, presumably by interfering with the fetus's ability to fill its lungs. In the presence of pulmonary hypoplasia, the EXIT procedure to rescue a baby with a neck mass is not likely to succeed.

Fetal hydrops can be a cause, or conversely a complication.

Pulmonary hypoplasia is associated with oligohydramnios through multiple mechanisms. Both conditions can result from blockage of the urinary bladder. Blockage prevents the bladder from emptying, and the bladder becomes very large and full. The large volume of the full bladder interferes with normal development of other organs, including the lungs. Pressure within the bladder becomes abnormally high, causing abnormal function in the kidneys hence abnormally high pressure in the vascular system entering the kidneys. This high pressure also interferes with normal development of other organs. An experiment in rabbits showed that PH also can be caused directly by oligohydramnios.

Pulmonary hypoplasia is associated with dextrocardia of embryonic arrest in that both conditions can result from early errors of development, resulting in Congenital cardiac disorders.

PH is a common direct cause of neonatal death resulting from pregnancy induced hypertension.

Diaphragmatic injuries are present in 1–7% of people with significant blunt trauma and an average of 3% of abdominal injuries.

A high body mass index may be associated with a higher risk of diaphragmatic rupture in people involved in vehicle accidents. It is rare for the diaphragm alone to be injured, especially in blunt trauma; other injuries are associated in as many as 80–100% of cases. In fact, if the diaphragm is injured, it is an indication that more severe injuries to organs may have occurred. Thus, the mortality after a diagnosis of diaphragmatic rupture is 17%, with most deaths due to lung complications. Common associated injuries include head injury, injuries to the aorta, fractures of the pelvis and long bones, and lacerations of the liver and spleen. Associated injuries occur in over three quarters of cases.

The mediastinum (from Medieval Latin "mediastinus", "midway") is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity surrounded by loose connective tissue, as an undelineated region that contains a group of structures within the thorax. The mediastinum contains the heart and its vessels, the esophagus, trachea, phrenic and cardiac nerves, the thoracic duct, thymus and lymph nodes of the central chest.

Lymphangiomatosis can occur at any age, but the incidence is highest in children and teenagers. Signs and symptoms are typically present before the age of 20 and the condition is often under-recognized in adults.

It affects males and females of all races and exhibits no inheritance pattern. The medical literature contains case reports from every continent.

Because it is so rare, and commonly misdiagnosed, it is not known exactly how many people are affected by this disease.

Respiratory disease is a common and significant cause of illness and death around the world. In the US, approximately 1 billion "common colds" occur each year. A study found that in 2010, there were approximately 6.8 million emergency department visits for respiratory disorders in the U.S. for patients under the age of 18. In 2012, respiratory conditions were the most frequent reasons for hospital stays among children.

In the UK, approximately 1 in 7 individuals are affected by some form of chronic lung disease, most commonly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which includes asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Respiratory diseases (including lung cancer) are responsible for over 10% of hospitalizations and over 16% of deaths in Canada.

In 2011, respiratory disease with ventilator support accounted for 93.3% of ICU utilization in the United States.

Pulmonary diseases may also impact newborns, such as pulmonary hyperplasia, pulmonary interstitial emphysema (usually preterm births), and infant respiratory distress syndrome,

Pneumomediastinum (from Greek "pneuma" – "air", also known as mediastinal emphysema) is (abnormal presence of air or other gas) in the mediastinum. First described in 1819 by René Laennec, the condition can result from physical trauma or other situations that lead to air escaping from the lungs, airways, or bowel into the chest cavity.

A significant complication of diaphragmatic rupture is traumatic diaphragmatic herniation: organs such as the stomach that herniate into the chest cavity and may be strangulated, losing their blood supply. Herniation of abdominal organs is present in 3–4% of people with abdominal trauma who present to a trauma center.

In some cases (particularly where whole litters are affected) FCKS can be due to genetic factors: certain bloodlines are known to produce a preponderance of kittens with the condition, and close matings very commonly produce it in the offspring. Isolated cases are more likely due to environmental factors or slight prematurity of the kittens concerned, and even complete litters suffering from FCKS may have no genetic component—repeat matings that have produced flat kittens in one instance have often not produced it again, and recovered FCKS that have been bred from have likewise not necessarily produced offspring that suffered from the condition.

A kitten that has difficulty in breathing is very likely also to suffer from colic (which can cause weight loss in the early development of a normal kitten), and a very small daily (or twice daily) dose of liquid paraffin (one or two drops placed on the tongue of the kitten, or 0.1 ml) should help to alleviate this problem. FCKS kittens who do not maintain weight are usually among the group which die, but many of them may simply be unable to feed properly due to colic, becoming increasingly weak and lethargic, and fading due to malnutrition as much as to the thoracic problems.

Colic has many causes, but in a kitten with respiratory difficulty it is possible that a malfunction during the breathing process leads the kitten to swallow air instead of taking it into its lungs. The GI tract fills with air while the lungs do not receive a proper air supply, preventing them from inflating fully. Pressure from the stomach exacerbates the condition. Treating for colic with liquid paraffin seems to shorten recovery time from 4–10 weeks to a matter of days.

Lymphangiomatosis (LYMF) is a condition where a lymphangioma is not present in a single localised mass, but in a widespread or multifocal manner. It is a rare type of tumor which results from an abnormal development of the lymphatic system.

It is thought to be the result of congenital errors of lymphatic development occurring prior to the 20th week of gestation. Lymphangiomatosis is a condition marked by the presence of cysts that result from an increase both in the size and number of thin-walled lymphatic channels that are abnormally interconnected and dilated. 75% of cases involve multiple organs. It typically presents by age 20 and, although it is technically benign, these deranged lymphatics tend to invade surrounding tissues and cause problems due to invasion and/or compression of adjacent structures. The condition is most common in the bones and lungs and shares some characteristics with Gorham’s disease. Up to 75% of patients with lymphangiomatosis have bone involvement, leading some to conclude that lymphangiomatosis and Gorham’s disease should be considered as a spectrum of disease rather than separate diseases. When it occurs in the lungs, lymphangiomatosis has serious consequences and is most aggressive in the youngest children. When the condition extends into the chest it commonly results in the accumulation of chyle in the linings of the heart and/or lungs.

Chyle is composed of lymph fluid and fats that are absorbed from the small intestine by specialized lymphatic vessels called lacteals during digestion. The accumulations are described based on location: chylothorax is chyle in the chest; chylopericardium is chyle trapped inside the sack surrounding the heart; chyloascites is chyle trapped in the linings of the abdomen and abdominal organs. The presence of chyle in these places accounts for many of the symptoms and complications associated with both lymphangiomatosis and Gorham’s disease. The incidence of lymphangiomatosis is unknown and it is often misdiagnosed. It is separate and distinct from lymphangiectasis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM), pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis, Kaposi’s sarcoma, and kaposiform hemangioendothelioma. Its unusual nature makes lymphangiomatosis (and Gorham’s disease) a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. A multidisciplinary approach is generally necessary for optimal diagnosis and symptom management. The term literally means lymphatic system (lymph) vessel (angi) tumor or cyst (oma) condition (tosis).

The following are causes of BHL:

- Sarcoidosis

- Infection

- Tuberculosis

- Fungal infection

- Mycoplasma

- Intestinal Lipodystrophy (Whipple's disease)

- Malignancy

- Lymphoma

- Carcinoma

- Mediastinal tumors

- Inorganic dust disease

- Silicosis

- Berylliosis

- Extrinsic allergic alveolitis

- Such as bird fancier's lung

- Less common causes also exist:

- Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis

- Human immunodeficiency virus

- Extrinsic allergic alveolitis

- Adult-onset Still's disease

A baby with a prenatally diagnosed cystic hygroma should be delivered in a major medical center equipped to deal with neonatal complications, such as a neonatal intensive care unit. An obstetrician usually decides the method of delivery. If the cystic hygroma is large, a cesarean section may be performed. After birth, infants with a persistent cystic hygroma must be monitored for airway obstruction. A thin needle may be used to reduce the volume of the cystic hygroma to prevent facial deformities and airway obstruction. Close observation of the baby by a neonatologist after birth is recommended. If resolution of the cystic hygroma does not occur before birth, a pediatric surgeon should be consulted.

Cystic hygromas that develop in the third trimester, after thirty weeks gestation, or in the postnatal period are usually not associated with chromosome abnormalities. There is a chance of recurrence after surgical removal of the cystic hygroma. The chance of recurrence depends on the extent of the cystic hygroma and whether its wall was able to be completely removed.

Treatments for removal of cystic hygroma are surgery or sclerosing agents which include:

- Bleomycin

- Doxycycline

- Ethanol (pure)

- Picibanil (OK-432)

- Sodium tetradecyl sulfate

Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy is a bilateral enlargement of the lymph nodes of pulmonary hila. It is a radiographic term that describes the enlargement of mediastinal lymph nodes and is most commonly identified by a chest x-ray.

The mediastinum is the cavity that separates the lungs from the rest of the chest. It contains the heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and aorta. The mediastinum has three main parts: the anterior mediastinum (front), the middle mediastinum, and the posterior mediastinum (back).

The most common mediastinal masses are neurogenic tumors (20% of mediastinal tumors), usually found in the posterior mediastinum, followed by thymoma (15-20%) located in the anterior mediastinum.

Masses in the anterior portion of the mediastinum can include thymoma, lymphoma, pheochromocytoma, germ cell tumors including teratoma, thyroid tissue, and parathyroid lesions. Masses in this area are more likely to be malignant than those in other compartments.

Masses in the posterior portion of the mediastinum tend to be neurogenic in origin, and in adults tend to be of neural sheath origin including neurilemomas and neurofibromas.

Lung cancer typically spreads to the lymph nodes in the mediastinum.

Mediastinal fibrosis most common cause is idiopathic mediastinal fibrosis; less commonly histoplasmosis tuberculosis or unknown. It is characterized by invasive, calcified fibrosis centered on lymph nodes that block major vessels and airways. In Europe, this disease is exceptionally rare. More cases are seen

in USA where the disease may often be associated with histoplasmosis.

A cystic hygroma, also known as cystic lymphangioma and macrocystic lymphatic malformation, is an often congenital multiloculated lymphatic lesion that can arise anywhere, but is classically found in the left posterior triangle of the neck and armpits. This is the most common form of lymphangioma. It contains large cyst-like cavities containing lymph, a watery fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system. Microscopically, cystic hygroma consists of multiple locules filled with lymph. In the depth, the locules are quite big but they decrease in size towards the surface.

Cystic hygromas are benign, but can be disfiguring. It is a condition which usually affects children; very rarely it can present in adulthood.

Cystic hygroma is also known as lymphatic malformation. Currently, the medical field prefers to use the term lymphatic malformation because the term cystic hygroma means water tumor. Lymphatic malformation is more commonly used now because it is a sponge-like collection of abnormal growth that contains clear lymphatic fluid. The fluid collects within the cysts or channels, usually in the soft tissue. Cystic hygromas occur when the lymphatic vessels that make up the lymphatic system are not formed properly. There are two types of lymphatic malformations. They are macrocystic lymphatic malformations, large cysts, and microcystic, small cysts. A person may have only one kind of the malformation or can have a mixture of both macro and micro cysts.

Cystic hygroma can be associated with a nuchal lymphangioma or a fetal hydrops. Additionally, it can be associated with Turner syndrome or with Noonan syndrome.

A lethal version of this condition is known as Cowchock Wapner Kurtz syndrome that, in addition to cystic hygroma, includes cleft palate and lymphedema, a condition of localized edema and tissue swelling caused by a compromised lymphatic system.

Assisted reproductive technology (ART) is a general term referring to methods used to achieve pregnancy by artificial or partially artificial means. According to the CDC, in general, ART procedures involve surgically removing eggs from a woman's ovaries, combining them with sperm in the laboratory, and returning them to the woman's body or donating them to another woman. ART has been associated with epigenetic syndromes, specifically BWS and Angelman syndrome. Three groups have shown an increased rate of ART conception in children with BWS. A retrospective case control study from Australia found a 1 in 4000 risk of BWS in their in-vitro population, several times higher than the general population. Another study found that children conceived by in vitro fertilisation (IVF) are three to four times more likely to develop the condition. No specific type of ART has been more closely associated with BWS. The mechanism by which ART produces this effect is still under investigation.

The prevalence has been estimated at 1 in 10,000 births, but exact values are hard to know because some that have the symptoms rarely have Pierre-Robin sequence (without any other associated malformation).

The reported incidence of constriction ring syndrome varies from 1/1200 and 1/15000 live births. The prevalence is equally in male and female.

Fetomaternal factors like prematurity, maternal illnes, low birth weight and maternal drug exposure are predisposing factors for the constriction ring syndrome.

No positive relationship between CRS and genetic inheritance has been reported.

The death rate of people with flail chest depends on the severity of their condition, ranging from 10 to 25%.