Immunodeficiency or immunosuppression can be caused by:

- Malnutrition

- Fatigue

- Recurrent infections

- Immunosuppressing agents for organ transplant recipients

- Advanced HIV infection

- Chemotherapy for cancer

- Genetic predisposition

- Skin damage

- Antibiotic treatment leading to disruption of the physiological microbiome, thus allowing some microorganisms to outcompete others and become pathogenic (e.g. disruption of intestinal flora may lead to "Clostridium difficile" infection

- Medical procedures

- Pregnancy

- Ageing

- Leukopenia (i.e. neutropenia and lymphocytopenia)

The lack of or the disruption of normal vaginal flora allows the proliferation of opportunistic microorganisms and will cause the opportunistic infection - bacterial vaginosis.

Opportunistic infections caused by Feline Leukemia Virus and Feline immunodeficiency virus retroviral infections can be treated with Lymphocyte T-Cell Immune Modulator.

Gram negative bacterial species are responsible for approximately 24% of all cases of healthcare-associated bacteremia and 45% of all cases of community-acquired bacteremia. In general, gram negative bacteria enter the bloodstream from infections in the respiratory tract, genitourinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, or hepatobiliary system. Gram-negative bacteremia occurs more frequently in elderly populations (65 years or older) and is associated with higher morbidity and mortality in this population.

"E.coli" is the most common cause of community-acquired bacteremia accounting for approximately 75% of cases. E.coli bacteremia is usually the result of a urinary tract infection. Other organisms that can cause community-acquired bacteremia include "pseudomonas aeruginosa", "klebsiella pneumoniae", and "proteus mirabilis". "Salmonella" infection, despite mainly only resulting in gastroenteritis in the developed world, is a common cause of bacteremia in Africa. It principally affects children who lack antibodies to Salmonella and HIV+ patients of all ages.

Among healthcare-associated cases of bacteremia, gram negative organisms are an important cause of bacteremia in the ICU. Catheters in the veins, arteries, or urinary tract can all create a way for gram negative bacteria to enter the bloodstream. Surgical procedures of the genitourinary tract, intestinal tract, or hepatobiliary tract can also lead to gram negative bacteremia. "Pseudomonas" and "enterobacter" species are the most important causes of gram negative bacteremia in the ICU.

There are several risk factors that increase the likelihood of developing bacteremia from any type of bacteria. These include:

- HIV infection

- Diabetes Mellitus

- Chronic hemodialysis

- Solid organ transplant

- Stem cell transplant

- Treatment with glucocorticoids

- Liver failure

In the majority of cases, amoebas remain in the gastrointestinal tract of the hosts. Severe ulceration of the gastrointestinal mucosal surfaces occurs in less than 16% of cases. In fewer cases, the parasite invades the soft tissues, most commonly the liver. Only rarely are masses formed (amoebomas) that lead to intestinal obstruction.(Mistaken for Ca caecum and appendicular mass) Other local complications include bloody diarrhea, pericolic and pericaecal abscess.

Complications of hepatic amoebiasis includes subdiaphragmatic abscess, perforation of diaphragm to pericardium and pleural cavity, perforation to abdominal cavital "(amoebic peritonitis)" and perforation of skin "(amoebiasis cutis)".

Pulmonary amoebiasis can occur from hepatic lesion by haemotagenous spread and also by perforation of pleural cavity and lung. It can cause lung abscess, pulmono pleural fistula, empyema lung and broncho pleural fistula. It can also reach the brain through blood vessels and cause amoebic brain abscess and amoebic meningoencephalitis. Cutaneous amoebiasis can also occur in skin around sites of colostomy wound, perianal region, region overlying visceral lesion and at the site of drainage of liver abscess.

Urogenital tract amoebiasis derived from intestinal lesion can cause amoebic vulvovaginitis "(May's disease)", rectovesicle fistula and rectovaginal fistula.

"Entamoeba histolytica" infection is associated with malnutrition and stunting of growth.

human intestinal spirochetosis, also intestinal spirochetes, colonic spirochetosis and colonic spirochetes, is an infection of the colonic-type mucosa with spirochete microorganisms.

In 2010 it caused about 55,000 deaths worldwide down from 68,000 in 1990.

In older textbooks it is often stated that 10% of the world's population is infected with "Entamoeba histolytica". It is now known that at least 90% of these infections are due to "E. dispar". Nevertheless, this means that there are up to 50 million true "E. histolytica" infections and approximately seventy thousand die each year, mostly from liver abscesses or other complications. Although usually considered a tropical parasite, the first case reported (in 1875) was actually in St Petersburg in Russia, near the Arctic Circle. Infection is more common in warmer areas, but this is both because of poorer hygiene and the parasitic cysts surviving longer in warm moist conditions.

Human intestinal spirochetosis is caused by "Brachyspira pilosicoli" and "Brachyspira aalborgi". Porcine and avian intestinal spirochetosis are caused by "Brachyspira pilosicoli".

Pseudomonas infection refers to a disease caused by one of the species of the genus "Pseudomonas".

"Pseudomonas sp. KUMS3" could be considered

as an opportunistic pathogen, which can survive on the

fish surface or in water or in the gut and may cause disease

when unfavorable conditions develop.

"P. aeruginosa" is an opportunistic human pathogen, most commonly affecting immunocompromised patients, such as those with cystic fibrosis or AIDS. Infection can affect many different parts of the body, but infections typically target the respiratory tract (e.g. patients with CF or those on mechanical ventilation), causing bacterial pneumonia. In a surveillance study between 1986 and 1989, P. aeruginosa was the third leading cause of all nosocomial infections, and specifically the number one leading cause of hospital-acquired pneumonia and third leading cause of hospital-acquired UTI. Treatment of such infections can be difficult due to multiple antibiotic resistance, and in the United States, there was an increase in MDRPA (Multidrug-resistant "Pseudomonas aeruginosa") resistant to ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, and aminoglycosides, from 0.9% in 1994 to 5.6% in 2002.

"P. oryzihabitans" can also be a human pathogen, although infections are rare. It can cause peritonitis, endophthalmitis, septicemia and bacteremia. Similar symptoms although also very rare can be seen by infections of "P. luteola".

"P. plecoglossicida" is a fish pathogenic species, causing hemorrhagic ascites in the ayu ("Plecoglossus altivelis"). "P. anguilliseptica" is also a fish pathogen.

Due to their hemolytic activity, even non-pathogenic species of "Pseudomonas" can occasionally become a problem in clinical settings, where they have been known to infect blood transfusions.

Due to the difficulty of exploring host and amebic factors involved in the pathogenesis of amebic liver abscess in humans, most studies have been conducted with animal models (e.g., mice, gerbils, and hamsters). Histopathological findings revealed that the chronic phase of amebic liver abscess in humans corresponds to lytic or liquefactive necrosis, whereas in rodent models there is granulomatous inflammation. However, the use of animal models has provided important information on molecules and mechanisms of the host/parasite interaction in amebic liver abscess.

Dysentery results from viral, bacterial, or parasitic infestations. These pathogens typically reach the large intestine after entering orally, through ingestion of contaminated food or water, oral contact with contaminated objects or hands, and so on.

Each specific pathogen has its own mechanism or pathogenesis, but in general, the result is damage to the intestinal lining, leading to the inflammatory immune response. This can cause elevated temperature, painful spasms of the intestinal muscles (cramping), swelling due to water leaking from capillaries of the intestine (edema), and further tissue damage by the body's immune cells and the chemicals, called cytokines, which are released to fight the infection. The result can be impaired nutrient absorption, excessive water and mineral loss through the stools due to breakdown of the control mechanisms in the intestinal tissue that normally remove water from the stools, and in severe cases, the entry of pathogenic organisms into the bloodstream.

Extensive cellular damage or death is required to cause bleeding. Bacteria can do this either by invading into intestinal mucosa or by secreting toxins that cause cell death. Bacterial infections that cause bloody diarrhea are typically classified as being either invasive or toxogenic. Invasive species cause damage directly by invading into the mucosa. The toxogenic species do not invade, but cause cellular damage by secreting toxins, resulting in bloody diarrhea. This is also in contrast to toxins that cause watery diarrhea, which usually do not cause cellular damage, but rather they take over cellular machinery for a portion of life of the cell.

Some microorganisms – for example, bacteria of the genus "Shigella" – secrete substances known as cytotoxins, which kill and damage intestinal tissue on contact. Shigella is thought to cause bleeding due to invasion rather than toxin, because even non-toxogenic strains can cause dysentery, but E. coli with shiga-like toxins do not invade the intestinal mucosa, and are therefore toxin dependent. Viruses directly attack the intestinal cells, taking over their metabolic machinery to make copies of themselves, which leads to cell death.

Definitions of dysentery can vary by region and by medical specialty. The U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) limits its definition to "diarrhea with visible blood". Others define the term more broadly. These differences in definition must be taken into account when defining mechanisms. For example, using the CDC definition requires that intestinal tissue be so severely damaged that blood vessels have ruptured, allowing visible quantities of blood to be lost with defecation. Other definitions require less specific damage.

Dysentery may also be caused by shigellosis, an infection by bacteria of the genus "Shigella", and is then known as bacillary dysentery (or Marlow syndrome). The term "bacillary dysentery" etymologically might seem to refer to any dysentery caused by any bacilliform bacteria, but its meaning is restricted by convention to "Shigella" dysentery.

The parasite infects an amphibic snail ("Segmentina nitidella, Segmentina hemisphaerula, Hippeutis schmackerie, Gyraulus, Lymnaea, Pila, Planorbis (Indoplanorbis)") after being released by infected mammalian feces; metacercaria released from this intermediate host encyst on aquatic plants like water spinach, which are eaten raw by pigs and humans. Water itself can also be infective when drunk unheated ("Encysted cercariae exist not only on aquatic plants, but also on the surface of the water.")

Multiple drug resistance (MDR), multidrug resistance or multiresistance is antimicrobial resistance shown by a species of microorganism to multiple antimicrobial drugs. The types most threatening to public health are MDR bacteria that resist multiple antibiotics; other types include MDR viruses, fungi, and parasites (resistant to multiple antifungal, antiviral, and antiparasitic drugs of a wide chemical variety). Recognizing different degrees of MDR, the terms extensively drug resistant (XDR) and pandrug-resistant (PDR) have been introduced. The definitions were published in 2011 in the journal "Clinical Microbiology and Infection" and are openly accessible.

Infection can be prevented by immersing vegetables in boiling water for a few seconds to kill the infective metacercariae, avoiding the use of untreated feces ("nightsoil") as a fertilizer, and maintenance of proper sanitation and good hygiene. Additionally, snail control should be attempted.

Several studies found that healthcare-associated pneumonia is the second most common type of pneumonia, occurring less commonly than community-acquired pneumonia but more frequently than hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia. In a recent observational study, the rates for CAP, HCAP and HAP were 60%, 25% and 15% respectively. Patients with HCAP are older and more commonly have simultaneous health problems (such as previous stroke, heart failure and diabetes).

The number of residents in long term care facilities is expected to rise dramatically over the next 30 years. These older adults are known to develop pneumonia 10 times more than their community-dwelling peers, and hospital admittance rates are 30 times higher.

HCAP is a condition in patients who can come from the community, but have frequent contact with the healthcare environment. Historically, the etiology and prognosis of nursing home pneumonia appeared to differ from other types of community acquired pneumonia, with studies reporting a worse prognosis and higher incidence of multi drug resistant organisms as etiology agents. The definition criteria which has been used is the same as the one which has been previously used to identify bloodstream healthcare associated infections.

HCAP is no longer recognized as a clinically independent entity. This is due to increasing evidence from a growing number of studies that many patients defined as having HCAP are not at high risk for MDR pathogens. As a result, 2016 IDSA guidelines removed consideration of HCAP as a separate clinical entity.

This nitroimidazole compound, like metronidazole, has shown a marked therapeutic response in amoebic liver abscess. Occasional side effects include nausea and dizziness. Tinidazole is not widely available though it is more effective than metronidazole. Zuberi and Ibrahim found tinidazole to be effective in 86.7% cases of intestinal amoebiasis and in 100% cases of amoebic liver abscess.

Luminal amoebicides like halogenated oxyquinolines, e.g. diiodohydroxyquinoline in a dose of 0.6 G. thrice daily for 3 weeks, diloxanide furoate 0.5 G. three times a day for 10 days and sometimes tetracyclines 1–2 G./day for 5 days should be used concurrently with any of the above drugs as adjuncts to eliminate intestinal infection.

Common multidrug-resistant organisms are usually bacteria:

- Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE)

- Methicillin-Resistant "Staphylococcus" "aureus" (MRSA)

- Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBLs) producing Gram-negative bacteria

- "Klebsiella" "pneumoniae" carbapenemase (KPC) producing Gram-negatives

- Multidrug-Resistant gram negative rods (MDR GNR) MDRGN bacteria such as "Enterobacter species", "E.coli", "Klebsiella pneumoniae", "Acinetobacter baumannii", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa"

A group of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria of particular recent importance have been dubbed as the ESKAPE group ("Enterococcus faecium", "Staphylococcus aureus", "Klebsiella pneumoniae", "Acinetobacter baumannii", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" and Enterobacter species).

- Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis

The disease is regarded as extremely rare, with an incidence (new number of cases per year) of one case per million people. The patients are predominantly male (86% in a survey of American patients), although in some countries the rate of women receiving a diagnosis of Whipple's disease has increased in recent years. It occurs predominantly in those of Caucasian ethnicity, suggesting a genetic predisposition in that population.

"T. whipplei" appears to be an environmental organism that is commonly present in the gasterointestinal tract but remains asymptomatic. Several lines of evidence suggest that some defect—inherited or acquired—in immunity is required for it to become pathogenic. The possible immunological defect may be specific for "T. whipplei", since the disease is not associated with a substantially increased risk of other infections.

The disease is usually diagnosed in middle age (median 49 years). Studies from Germany have shown that age at diagnosis has been rising since the 1960s.

A full spectrum of microorganisms is responsible for CAP in adults, and patients with certain risk factors are more susceptible to infections of certain groups of microorganisms. Identifying people at risk for infection by these organisms aids in appropriate treatment.

Many less-common organisms can cause CAP in adults, and are identified from specific risk factors or treatment failure for common causes.

The prevalence of intestinal parasites is the highest among children that are living in the poorest communities in developing nations. The most common causes of intestinal parasites are through consumption of contaminated water, infected soil, inadequate sanitation and hygiene, and improper hygiene. Specifically, lack of access to facilities for safe disposal of human waste can result in intestinal parasites and disease. Poor hygiene habits or lacking available hygiene resources, such as hand washing facilities, also negatively impact rates of disease. Parasitic contamination can also occur from eating raw vegetables and fruits, soil-eating behavior, and lack of available safe water.

Parasites can get into the intestine by going through the mouth from uncooked or unwashed food, contaminated water or hands, or by skin contact with larva infected soil; they can also be transferred by the sexual act of anilingus in some cases.

When the organisms are swallowed, they move into the intestine, where they can reproduce and cause symptoms. Children are particularly susceptible if they are not thoroughly cleaned after coming into contact with infected soil that is present in environments that they may frequently visit such as sandboxes and school playgrounds. People in developing countries are also at particular risk due to drinking water from sources that may be contaminated with parasites that colonize the gastrointestinal tract.

Horses may develop pharyngitis, laryngitis, or esophagitis secondary to indwelling nasogastric tube. Other complications include thrombophlebitis, laminitis (which subsequently reduces survival rate), and weight loss. Horses are also at increased risk of hepatic injury.

Survival rates for DPJ are 25–94%. Horses that survive the incident rarely have reoccurrence.

A liver abscess is a pus-filled mass inside the liver. Common causes are abdominal conditions such as appendicitis or diverticulitis due to haematogenous spread through the portal vein.

In microbiology, coinfection is the simultaneous infection of a host by multiple pathogen species. In virology, coinfection includes simultaneous infection of a single cell by two or more virus particles. An example is the coinfection of liver cells with Hepatitis B virus and Hepatitis D virus, which can arise incrementally by initial infection followed by superinfection.

Global prevalence or incidence of coinfection among humans is unknown, but it is thought to be commonplace, sometimes more common than single infection. Coinfection with helminths affects around 800 million people worldwide.

Coinfection is of particular human health importance because pathogen species can interact within the host. The net effect of coinfection on human health is thought to be negative. Interactions can have either positive or negative effects on other parasites. Under positive parasite interactions, disease transmission and progression are enhanced and this is also known as syndemism. Negative parasite interactions include microbial interference when one bacterial species suppresses the virulence or colonisation of other bacteria, such as "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" suppressing pathogenic "Staphylococcus aureus" colony formation. The general patterns of ecological interactions between parasite species are unknown, even among common coinfections such as those between sexually transmitted infections. However, network analysis of a food web of coinfection in humans suggests that there is greater potential for interactions via shared food sources than via the immune system.

A globally common coinfection involves tuberculosis and HIV. In some countries, up to 80% of tuberculosis patients are also HIV-positive. The potential for dynamics of these two infectious diseases to be linked has been known for decades. Other common examples of coinfections are AIDS, which involves coinfection of end-stage HIV with opportunistic parasites and polymicrobial infections like Lyme disease with other diseases.