It has been estimated that VUR is present in more than 10% of the population. Younger children are more prone to VUR because of the relative shortness of the submucosal ureters. This susceptibility decreases with age as the length of the ureters increases as the children grow. In children under the age of 1 year with a urinary tract infection, 70% will have VUR. This number decreases to 15% by the age of 12. Although VUR is more common in males antenatally, in later life there is a definite female preponderance with 85% of cases being female.

Urinary tract obstruction as a congenital disorder results in oligohydramnios which in turn can lead to the Potter sequence of atypical physical appearance. Pulmonary hypoplasia is by far the main cause of death in the early neonatal period for children with congenital lower urinary tract obstruction.

Fetal surgery of congenital lower urinary tract obstruction seems to improve survival, according to a randomized yet small study.

A meta-analysis on the influence of voiding position on urodynamics in healthy males and males with LUTS showed that in the sitting position, the residual urine in the bladder was significantly reduced. The other parameters, namely the maximum urinary flow and the voiding time were increased and decreased respectively. For healthy males, no influence was found on these parameters, meaning that they can urinate in either position.

The American Urological Association recommends ongoing monitoring of children with VUR until the abnormality resolves or is no longer clinically significant. The recommendations are for annual evaluation of blood pressure, height, weight, analysis of the urine, and kidney ultrasound.

In women, physical changes resulting from pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause often contribute to stress incontinence. Stress incontinence can worsen during the week before the menstrual period. At that time, lowered estrogen levels may lead to lower muscular pressure around the urethra, increasing chances of leakage. The incidence of stress incontinence increases following menopause, similarly because of lowered estrogen levels. In female high-level athletes, effort incontinence occurs in all sports involving abrupt repeated increases in intra-abdominal pressure that may exceed perineal floor resistance.

In addition to weight loss and exercise there are some behavioral changes that can improve stress incontinence. First decrease the amount of liquid that you are ingesting, and avoid drinking caffeinated beverages because they irritate the bladder. Spicy foods, carbonated beverages, alcohol and citrus also irritate the bladder and should be avoided. Quitting smoking can also improve stress incontinence because smoking irritates the bladder and can make you cough (putting stress on the bladder).

The incidence of urethral diverticulum has been increasing in the 2000s, likely due to increasing diagnosis and detection of the condition. It is estimated to be present in as low as 0.02% of all women and as high as 6% of all women, and 40% of women with lower urinary tract symptoms. Most symptomatic urethral diverticula are present in women from 30–60 years old.

84% of periurethral masses are due to urethral diverticula.

Urethral diverticulum can occur in men, and can cause complications including kidney stones and urinary tract infections.

Bladder tamponade is obstruction of the bladder outlet due to heavy blood clot formation within it. It generally requires surgery. Such heavy bleeding is usually due to bladder cancer.

Duplicated ureter is the most common renal abnormality, occurring in approximately 1% of the population.

Race: Duplicated ureter is more common in Caucasians than in African-Americans.

Sex: Duplicated ureter is more common in females. However, this may be due to the higher frequency of urinary tract infections in females, leading to a higher rate of diagnosis of duplicated ureter.

The female homolog to the male verumontanum from which the valves originate is the hymen.

One of the main causes is suggested to be excessive and repetitive straining during defecation. Other causes include weakness of the pelvic floor muscles (secondary to age related neuropathic degeneration or traumatic injury during pregnancy and labor.

The Gold standard for all Urinary incontinence is an urodynamic study that looks for bladder capacity, detrusor stability, contractility and voiding ability (Cystometry)

Overflow incontinence occurs when the patient's bladder is always full so that it frequently leaks urine. Weak bladder muscles, resulting in incomplete emptying of the bladder, or a blocked urethra can cause this type of incontinence. Autonomic neuropathy from diabetes or other diseases (e.g. Multiple sclerosis) can decrease neural signals from the bladder (allowing for overfilling) and may also decrease the expulsion of urine by the detrusor muscle (allowing for urinary retention). Additionally, tumors and kidney stones can block the urethra. Spinal cord injuries or nervous system disorders are additional causes of overflow incontinence. In men, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) may also restrict the flow of urine. Overflow incontinence is rare in women, although sometimes it is caused by fibroid or ovarian tumors. Also overflow incontinence can be from increased outlet resistance from advanced vaginal prolapse causing a "kink" in the urethra or after an anti-incontinence procedure which has overcorrected the problem. Early symptoms include a hesitant or slow stream of urine during voluntary urination. Anticholinergic medications may worsen overflow incontinence. NSAIDs medications may worsen overflow incontinence.

Bladder rupture (rupture of bladder, ) may occur if the bladder is overfilled and not emptied. This can occur in the case of binge drinkers who have consumed large quantities of fluids, but are not conscious of the need to urinate due to stupor. This condition is very rare in women, but does occur. Signs and symptoms include localized pain and uraemia (poisoning due to reabsorbed waste).

There are two types of prostatic stent: temporary and permanent.

Although a permanent prostatic stent is not a medical treatment, it falls under the classification of a surgical procedure. Placement of a permanent prostatic stent is carried out as an outpatient treatment under local, topical or spinal anesthesia and usually takes about 15–30 minutes.

A temporary prostatic stent can be inserted in a similar manner to a Foley catheter, requiring only topical anesthesia.

Bacteria and yeast, including those naturally occurring as part of the human microbiome, can travel along urinary catheters and cause an infection in the bladder, kidneys, and other organs connected to the urinary tract.

CAUTI can lead to complications such as prostatitis, epididymitis, and orchitis in men, and cystitis, pyelonephritis, gram-negative bacteremia, endocarditis, vertebral osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, endophthalmitis, and meningitis in all patients. Complications associated with CAUTI cause discomfort to the patient, prolonged hospital stay, and increased cost and mortality. It has been estimated that more than 13,000 deaths are associated with UTIs annually. Estimated > 560,000 nosocomial UTIs annually.

Imperforate hymen is the most common vaginal obstruction of congenital origin. Estimates of the frequency of imperforate hymen vary from 1 in 1000 to 1 in 10,000 females.

Permanent stents are often metal coils, which are inserted into the male urethra. The braided mesh is designed to expand radially, applying constant gentle pressure to hold open the sections of the urethra that obstruct the flow of urine. The open, diamond-shape cell design of the stent allows the stent to eventually become embedded in the urethra, thus minimizing the risk for encrustation and migration. Permanent stents are used to relieve urinary obstructions secondary to benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), recurrent bulbar urethral stricture (RBUS), or detrusor external sphincter dyssynergia (DESD). The main motive for removal of permanent stents is worsening of symptoms even with device fitted. Other reasons have been migration, clot retention, hematuria, and urinary retention. The only FDA approved permanent stent is the Urolume. Usually, permanent stents are used only for men who are unwilling or unable to take medications or who are reluctant or unable to have surgery. Most doctors do not consider permanent stents a viable long-term treatment for most men.

It can be caused by a lesion at any point in the urinary tract.

Causes include urolithiasis, posterior urethral valves and ureteral herniation.

Urinary catheters should be inserted using aseptic technique and sterile equipment (including sterile gloves, drape, sponges, antiseptic and sterile solution), particularly in an acute care setting. Hands should be washed before and after catheter insertion. Overall, catheter use should be minimized in all patients, particularly those at higher risk of CAUTI and mortality (e.g. the elderly or those with impaired immunity).

Surgical treatments may be used to treat the condition, and include retro-rectal levatorplasty, post-anal repair, retro-anal levator plate myorrhaphy.

Obstructive uropathy is a structural or functional hindrance of normal urine flow, sometimes leading to renal dysfunction (obstructive nephropathy).

It is a very broad term, and does not imply a location or cause.

Duplicated ureter or Duplex Collecting System is a congenital condition in which the ureteric bud, the embryological origin of the ureter, splits (or arises twice), resulting in two ureters draining a single kidney. It is the most common renal abnormality, occurring in approximately 1% of the population. The additional ureter may result in a ureterocele, or an ectopic ureter.

Posterior urethral obstruction was first classified by H. H. Young in 1919. The "verumontanum", or mountain ridge, is a distinctive landmark in the prostatic urethra, important in the systemic division of posterior valve disorders:

- Type I - Most common type; due to anterior fusing of the "plicae colliculi", mucosal fins extending from the bottom of the verumontanum distally along the prostatic and membranous urethra

- Type II - Least common variant; vertical or longitudinal folds between the verumontanum and proximal prostatic urethra and bladder neck

- Type III - Less common variant; a disc of tissue distal to verumontanum, also theorized to be a developmental anomaly of congenital urogenital remnants in the bulbar urethra

Dewan has suggested that obstruction in the posterior urethra is more appropriately termed congenital obstructions of the posterior urethral membrane (COPUMs), a concept that has come from an in-depth analysis of the historical papers, and evaluation of patients with a prenatal diagnosis that has facilitated video recording of the uninstrumented obstructed urethra. The congenital obstructive lesions in the bulbar urethra, named Type III Valves by Young in 1919, have been eponymously referred to as Cobb's collar or Moorman's ring. For each of the COPUM (Posterior Urethra) and Cobb's (Bulbar Urethra) lesions, the degree of obstruction can be variable, consistent with a variable expression of the embryopathy. The now nearly one hundred year old nomenclature of posterior urethral valves was based on limited radiology and primitive endoscopy, thus a change COPUM or Cobb's has been appropriate.