Echopraxia is the involuntary mirroring of an observed action. Imitated actions can range from simple motor tasks such as picking up a phone to violent actions such as hitting another person.

Imitative learning and emulation of physical and verbal actions are critical to early development (up to the age of two or three), but when these behaviors become reactions rather than a means for learning, they are considered echophenomena (copying behaviors).

Echopraxia is a typical symptom of Tourette syndrome but causes are not well elucidated.

One theoretical cause subject to ongoing debate surrounds the role of the mirror neuron system (MNS), a group of neurons in the inferior frontal gyrus (F5 region) of the brain that may influence imitative behaviors, but no widely accepted neural or computational models have been put forward to describe how mirror neuron activity supports cognitive functions such as imitation.

Echolalia (also known as echologia or echophrasia) is defined as the unsolicited repetition of vocalizations made by another person (by the same person is called palilalia). In its profound form it is automatic and effortless. It is one of the echophenomena, closely related to echopraxia, the automatic repetition of movements made by another person; both are "subsets of imitative behavior" whereby sounds or actions are imitated "without explicit awareness". Echolalia may be an immediate reaction to a stimulus or may be delayed.

The word "echolalia" is derived from the Greek , meaning "echo" or "to repeat", and ("laliá") meaning "speech" or "talk" (of onomatopoeic origin, from the verb ("laléo"), meaning "to talk").

Echolalia can be categorized as immediate (occurring immediately after the stimulus) vs. delayed (some time after the occurrence of a stimulus). Immediate echolalia results from quick recall of information from the short-term memory and "superficial linguistic processing". A typical pediatric presentation of immediate echolalia might be as follows: a child is asked "Do you want dinner?"; the child echoes back "Do you want dinner?", followed by a pause, and then a response, "Yes. What's for dinner?"

In delayed echolalia the patient repeats words, phrases, or multiple sentences after a delay that can be anywhere from hours to years later. Immediate echolalia can be indicative that a developmental disorder exists, but this is not necessarily the case. Sometimes echolalia can be observed when an individual echoes back a statement to indicate they are contemplating a response and fully heard the original statement.

Researchers observed the daily repetitions of an autistic six-year-old in order to examine the differences between triggers for delayed versus immediate echolalia. Researchers further distinguished immediate echos by the sequential context in which they occur: after corrections, after directives, or in indiscernible sequential positions. Delayed echos are distinguished on the basis of ownership: self-echos, other-echos, and impersonal echos. The results showed that nearly all immediate echos produced by the six-year-old were found in sequential contexts, while the delayed echoes also occurred in the basis of ownership.

Although echolalia can be an impairment, the symptoms can involve a large selection of underlying meanings and behaviors across and within subjects. "Mitigated echolalia" refers to a repetition in which the original stimulus is somewhat altered, and "ambient echolalia" refers to the repetition (typically occurring in individuals with dementia) of environmental stimuli such as a television program running in the background.

Examples of mitigated echolalia are pronoun changes or syntax corrections. The first can be seen in the example of asking the patient “Where are you going?” and with patient responding “Where am I going?” The latter would be seen in the clinician asking “Where are I going?” and the patient repeating “Where am I going?” In mitigated echolalia some language processing is occurring. Mitigated echolalia can be seen in dyspraxia and aphasia of speech.

A Japanese case report describes a 20-year-old college student who was admitted to the hospital complaining about headaches and meningitis; however, he also exhibited signs of ambient echolalia. The researchers stated that the young patient's repetition was occurring at approximately the same tempo as his normal speech rate. The patient did not simply repeat words he had heard one after another. The patient reported that his ambient echolalia appeared to be random but appeared when he was distracted. He was also aware of his echolalia, but said he is unable to stop the repetitions.

Echophenomenon (also known as echo phenomenon) is "automatic imitative actions without explicit awareness" or pathological repetitions of external stimuli or activities, actions, sounds, or phrases, indicative of an underlying disorder.

The echophenomena include repetition:

- echolalia – of vocalizations (the most common of the echophenomena)

- echopraxia – of actions

- echomimia – of facial expressions

- echographia – of words that are written or typed

- echoplasia – physically or mentally, tracing contours of objects

- echolalioplasia – involving sign language, described in one individual with Tourette syndrome ().

- echologia – of words or sounds in thought

The cause of Jumping Frenchmen syndrome is unknown. One theory is that it is a genetic condition. Observation of 50 cases found the disorder to be remotely located and concentrated in the northern regions of Maine. Fourteen of these cases were found in four families. Another set of cases were found in a single family where the father, his two sons, and his two grandchildren exhibited "jumping" behavior.

It may also be a culture-bound syndrome or a formed habit. These French "jumpers" lived in a very remote region and most were lumberjacks. This type of small community would allow for a majority to adapt to this sort of reaction. Also, instances of many being shy may imply that the "jumper" was positively reinforced by the sudden attention as the entertainment for a group.

In 1885, Georges Gilles de la Tourette included Jumping Frenchmen syndrome in the typology of "convulsive tic illness"; studies of the condition in the 1980s cast doubt on whether the phenomenon was in fact a physical condition similar to Tourette syndrome. Documentation of direct observation of "Jumping Frenchmen" has been scarce, and while videotape evidence was recorded by several researchers that showed the condition to be real, MH and JM Saint-Hilaire concluded from studying eight affected people that it was brought on by conditions at their lumber camps and was psychological, not neurological.

The disorder is extraordinarily rare. While individuals of all backgrounds have been reported with the disorder, there is a higher inclination towards males (75% or more). The average age of those with Ganser syndrome is 32 and it stretches from ages 15 to 62 years old. It has been reported in children.

The disorder is apparently most common in men and prisoners, although prevalence data and familial patterns are not established.

Ganser syndrome is a rare dissociative disorder previously classified as a factitious disorder. It is characterized by nonsensical or wrong answers to questions or doing things incorrectly, other dissociative symptoms such as fugue, amnesia or conversion disorder, often with visual pseudohallucinations and a decreased state of consciousness. It is also sometimes called nonsense syndrome, balderdash syndrome, syndrome of approximate answers, hysterical pseudodementia or prison psychosis. This last name, prison psychosis, is sometimes used because the syndrome occurs most frequently in prison inmates, where it may be seen as an attempt to gain leniency from prison or court officials.

Ganser is an extremely rare variation of dissociative disorder. It is a reaction to extreme stress and the patient thereby suffers from approximation or giving absurd answers to simple questions. The syndrome can sometimes be diagnosed as merely malingering, but it is more often defined as dissociative disorder.

Symptoms include a clouding of consciousness, somatic conversion symptoms, confusion, stress, loss of personal identity, echolalia, and echopraxia. The psychological symptoms generally resemble the patient's sense of mental illness rather than any recognized category. Individuals also give approximate answers to simple questions. For example, "How many legs are on a cat?", to which the subject may respond 'Three'.

The syndrome may occur in persons with other mental disorders such as schizophrenia, depressive disorders, toxic states, paresis, alcohol use disorders and factitious disorders. EEG data does not suggest any specific organic cause.

George Miller Beard recorded individuals who would obey any command given suddenly, even if it meant striking a loved one; the Jumping Frenchmen seemed to react abnormally to sudden stimuli. The more common and less intense symptoms consisted of jumping, yelling, and hitting. These individuals exhibited outrageous bursts, and many described themselves as ticklish and shy. Other cases involved echolalia (repeating vocalizations made by another person) and echopraxia (repeating movements made by another person). Beard noted that the men were "suggestible" and that they "could not help repeating the word or sounds that came from the person that ordered them any more than they could help striking, dropping, throwing, jumping, or starting".

Some individuals experience only a few outbreaks of the disorder. However, in most cases, factitious disorder is a chronic and long-term condition that is difficult to treat. There are relatively few positive outcomes for this disorder; in fact, treatment provided a lower percentage of positive outcomes than did treatment of individuals with obvious psychotic symptoms such as people with schizophrenia. In addition, many individuals with factitious disorder do not present for treatment, often insisting their symptoms are genuine. Some degree of recovery, however, is possible. The passage of time seems to help the disorder greatly. There are many possible explanations for this occurrence, although none are currently considered definitive. It may be that an FD individual has mastered the art of feigning sickness over so many years of practice that the disorder can no longer be discerned. Another hypothesis is that many times an FD individual is placed in a home, or experiences health issues that are not self-induced or feigned. In this way, the problem with obtaining the 'patient' status is resolved because symptoms arise without any effort on the part of the individual.

Treatment consists of high-dose lorazepam or in some cases ECT. The response to the treatment is usually good, especially if detected early

There are many possible causes for this disorder. One such possibility is an underlying personality disorder. Individuals with FD may be trying to repeat a satisfying childhood relationship with a doctor. Perhaps also an individual has a desire to deceive or test authority figures. The underlying desire to resume the role of a patient and be cared for can also be considered an underlying personality disorder. Abuse, neglect, or abandonment during childhood are also probable causes.

These individuals may be trying to reenact unresolved issues with their parents. A history of frequent illnesses may also contribute to the development of this disorder. In some cases, individuals afflicted with FD are accustomed to actually being sick, and thus return to their previous state to recapture what they once considered the 'norm.' Another cause is a history of close contact with someone (a friend or family member) who had a severe or chronic condition. The patients found themselves subconsciously envious of the attention said relation received, and felt that they themselves faded into the background. Thus medical attention makes them feel glamorous and special.

Catatonia is a state of psycho-motor immobility and behavioral abnormality manifested by stupor. It was first described in 1874 by Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum, in ("Catatonia or Tension Insanity").

Though catatonia has historically been related to schizophrenia (catatonic schizophrenia), it is now known that catatonic symptoms are nonspecific and may be observed in other mental disorders and neurological conditions. In the fifth edition of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM), catatonia is not recognized as a separate disorder, but is associated with psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia (catatonic type), bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and other mental disorders, narcolepsy, as well as drug abuse or overdose (or both). It may also be seen in many medical disorders including infections (such as encephalitis), autoimmune disorders, focal neurologic lesions (including strokes), metabolic disturbances, alcohol withdrawal and abrupt or overly rapid benzodiazepine withdrawal. In the fifth edition of the DSM, it is written that a variety of medical conditions may cause catatonia, especially neurological conditions: encephalitis, cerebrovascular disease, neoplasms, head injury. Moreover, metabolic conditions: homocystinuria, diabetic ketoacidosis, hepatic encephalopathy, hypercalcaemia.

It can be an adverse reaction to prescribed medication. It bears similarity to conditions such as encephalitis lethargica and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. There are a variety of treatments available; benzodiazepines are a first-line treatment strategy. Electroconvulsive therapy is also sometimes used. There is growing evidence for the effectiveness of NMDA receptor antagonists for benzodiazepine-resistant catatonia. Antipsychotics are sometimes employed but require caution as they can worsen symptoms and have serious adverse effects.

List of symptoms that has been observed in those with autistic catatonia:

- Stupor

- Mutism

- Hyperactivity

- Agitation

- Excitement

- Posing

- Negativism

- Rigidity

- Waxy flexibility

- Automatic obedience

- Combativeness (during excitement)

- Aggressivity

- Stereotypies

- Tics

- Grimacing

- Echolalia

- Echopraxia

- Perseveration

- Verbigeration

- Staring

- Withdrawal

- Immobility

- Challenging behaviour

- Tremor

- Slowness

- Amotivation

- Grasp reflex

- Mannerism

- Gaze fixation

- Choreoathetoid movements of the trunk and extremities

- Autonomic instability (during excitement)

- Cannot start actions

- Cannot stop actions (if during excitement episodes needs acute psychiatric care)

- Freezing

- Impulsivity

- Bizarre/psychotic

- Sleep problems

- Urinary or Fecal incontinence

- Odd gait

- Passivity

- Reversal of day and night

- Eyerolling

- Stiff muscles

- Catalepsy

- Physiological pillow

- Difficulty crossing lines

- Gegenhalten

- Mitgehen

- Mitmachen

- Ambitendency

- Rituals

People with catatonia may experience an extreme loss of motor skill or even constant hyperactive motor activity. Catatonic patients will sometimes hold rigid poses for hours and will ignore any external stimuli. People with catatonic excitement can suffer from exhaustion if not treated. Patients may also show stereotyped, repetitive movements.

They may show specific types of movement such as waxy flexibility, in which they maintain positions after being placed in them by someone else. Conversely, they may remain in a fixed position by resisting movement in proportion to the force applied by the examiner. They may repeat meaningless phrases or speak only to repeat what the examiner says.

While catatonia is only identified as a symptom of schizophrenia in present psychiatric classifications, it is increasingly recognized as a syndrome with many faces. It appears as the Kahlbaum syndrome (motionless catatonia), malignant catatonia (neuroleptic malignant syndrome, toxic serotonin syndrome), and excited forms (delirious mania, catatonic excitement, oneirophrenia).

It has also been recognized as grafted on to autism spectrum disorders.

Latah, from Southeast Asia, is a condition in which abnormal behaviors result from a person experiencing a sudden shock. When surprised, the affected person typically engages in such behaviors as screaming, cursing, dancing type movements, and uncontrollable laughter, and will typically mimic the words or actions of those around them. Physical symptoms include an increased heart rate and profuse sweating, but no clear physiological source has been identified.

Latah is considered a culture-specific startle disorder that was historically regarded as personal difference rather than an illness.

Similar conditions have been recorded within other cultures and locations. For example, there are the so-called Jumping Frenchmen of Maine, the women of the Ainu people of Japan ("imu"), the Siberian ("miryachit"), and the Filipino and Thai peoples; however, the connection among these syndromes is controversial.

Latah can affect people differently; someone can have a very strong reaction or a slight reaction during a latah episode. Every instance of latah has been acquired over time. Those who are affected, which by an overwhelming number are middle-to-older-aged women, are not born latah. It typically occurs around the time of menopause. There is a lack of latah in the higher social strata of Malay and Java, which suggests they are more likely to suppress their responses than those who belong to lower social classes.

A latah episode occurs after a startle of some sort (poking, shouting, something falling). During an episode, a latah person will begin to shout obscenities, imitate words or gestures of those around them or even those on TV, and will often obey any commands given to them – no matter how outrageous or against cultural norms they are. Persons with latah make movements reminiscent of behaviors normally peculiar to certain childhood developmental stages. The person is unlikely to remember anything occurring during the episode.