An increased risk of tardive dyskinesia has been associated with smoking in some studies, although a negative study does exist. There seems to be a cigarette smoke-exposure-dependent risk for TD in antipsychotic-treated patients. Elderly patients are also at a heightened risk for developing TD, as are females and those with organic brain injuries or diabetes mellitus and those with the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. TD is also more common in those that experience acute neurological side effects from antipsychotic drug treatment. Racial discrepancies in TD rate also exist, with Africans and African Americans having higher rates of TD after exposure to antipsychotics. Certain genetic risk factors for TD have been identified including polymorphisms in the genes encoding the D, 5-HT and 5-HT receptors.

Tardive dyskinesia most commonly occurs in patients with psychiatric conditions who are treated with antipsychotic medications for many years. The average prevalence rate has been estimated to be around 30% for individuals taking antipsychotic medication, such as that used to treat schizophrenia. A study being conducted at the Yale University School of Medicine has estimated that "32% of patients develop persistent tics after 5 years on major tranquilizers, 57% by 15 years, and 68% by 25 years." More drastic data was found during a longitudinal study conducted on individuals 45 years of age and older who were taking antipsychotic drugs. According to this research study, 26% of patients developed tardive dyskinesia after just one year on the medication. Another 60% of this at-risk group developed the disorder after 3 years, and 23% developed "severe" cases of tardive dyskinesia within 3 years. According to these estimates, the majority of patients will eventually develop the disorder if they remain on the drugs long enough.

Elderly patients are more prone to develop tardive dyskinesia, and elderly women are more at-risk than elderly men. The risk is much lower for younger men and women, and also more equal across the sexes. Patients who have undergone electro-convulsive therapy or have a history of diabetes or alcohol abuse also have a higher risk of developing tardive dyskinesia.

Several studies have recently been conducted comparing the prevalence rate of tardive dyskinesia with second generation, or more modern, antipsychotic drugs to that of first generation drugs. The newer antipsychotics appear to have a substantially reduced potential for causing tardive dyskinesia. However, some studies express concern that the prevalence rate has decreased far less than expected, cautioning against the overestimation of the safety of modern antipsychotics.

A physician can evaluate and diagnose a patient with tardive dyskinesia by conducting a systematic examination. The physician should ask the patient to relax, and look for symptoms like facial grimacing, eye or lip movements, tics, respiratory irregularities, and tongue movements. In some cases, patients experience nutritional problems, so a physician can also look for a gain or loss in weight.

Apart from the underlying psychiatric disorder, tardive dyskinesia may cause afflicted people to become socially isolated. It also increases the risk of dysmorphophobia and can even lead to suicide. Emotional or physical stress can increase the severity of dyskinetic movements, whereas relaxation and sedation have the opposite effect.

Published epidemiological data for akathisia are mostly limited to treatment periods preceding the arrival of second-generation antipsychotics. Sachdev (1995) reported an incidence rate of acute akathisia of 31% for 100 patients treated for 2 weeks with antipsychotic medications. Sachdev (1995) reported a prevalence range from 0.1% to 41%. In all likelihood, rates of prevalence are lower for current treatment as second-generation antipsychotics carry a lower risk of akathisia.

Two other types, primary ciliary dyskinesia and biliary dyskinesia, are caused by specific kinds of ineffective movement of the body, and are not movement disorders.

Spastic thrusting of hip area can occur in Sodemytopic Parkinson's.

Extrapyramidal symptoms are most commonly caused by typical antipsychotic drugs that antagonize dopamine D2 receptors. The most common typical antipsychotics associated with EPS are haloperidol and fluphenazine. Atypical antipsychotics have lower D2 receptor affinity or higher serotonin 5-HT2A receptor affinity which lead to lower rates of EPS. However, some research has shown that atypical antipsychotics are just as likely as conventional antipsychotics to cause EPS.

Other anti-dopaminergic drugs, like the antiemetic metoclopramide, can also result in extrapyramidal side effects. Short and long-term use of antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRI), and norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRI) have also resulted in EPS. Specifically, duloxetine, sertraline, escitalopram, fluoxetine, and bupropion have been linked to the induction of EPS. Other causes of extrapyramidal symptoms can include brain damage and meningitis.

Acute dystonia is a sustained muscle contraction that sometimes appears soon after administration of antipsychotic medications. Any muscle in the body may be affected, including the jaw, tongue, throat, arms, or legs. When the throat muscles are involved, this type of dystonia is called an acute laryngospasm and is a medical emergency because it can impair breathing. Older antipsychotics such as Haloperidol or Fluphenazine are more likely to cause acute dystonia than newer agents. Giving high doses of antipsychotics by injection also increases the risk of developing acute dystonia.

Methamphetamine, other amphetamines and dopaminergic stimulants including cocaine and pemoline can produce choreoathetoid dyskinesias; the prevalence, time-frame and prognosis are not well established. Amphetamines also cause a dramatic increase in choreoathetoid symptoms in patients with underlying chorea such as Sydenham’s, Huntington’s, and Lupus. Long-term use of amphetamines may increase the risk of Parkinson's disease (PD): in one retrospective study with over 40,000 participants it was concluded that amphetamine abusers generally had a 200% higher chance of developing PD versus those with no history of abuse; the risk was much higher in women, almost 400%. There remains some controversy as of 2017.

Levodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) is evident in patients with Parkinson's disease who have been on levodopa () for prolonged periods of time. LID commonly first appears in the foot, on the most affected side of the body. There are three main types that can be classified on the basis of their course and clinical presentation following an oral dose of :

- Off-period dystonia – correlated to the akinesia that occurs before the full effect of sets in, when the plasma levels of are low. In general, it occurs as painful spasms in the foot. Patients respond to therapy.

- Diphasic dyskinesia – occurs when plasma L-DOPA levels are rising or falling. This form occurs primarily in the lower limbs (though they can happen elsewhere) and is usually dystonic (characterized by apparent rigidity within muscles or groups thereof) or (characterized by involuntary movement of muscles) and will not respond to dosage reductions.

- Peak-dose dyskinesia – the most common form of levodopa-induced dyskinesia; it correlates with the plateau plasma level. This type usually involves the upper limbs more (but could also affect the head, trunk and respiratory muscles), is choreic (of chorea), and less disabling. Patients will respond to reduction but may be accompanied by deterioration of parkinsonism. Peak-dose L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia has been suggested to be associated with cortical dysregulation of dopamine signaling.

Anticholinergic drugs are used to control neuroleptic-induced EPS, although akathisia may require beta blockers or even benzodiazepines. If the EPS are induced by an antipsychotic, EPS may be reduced by dose titration or by switching to an atypical antipsychotic, such as aripiprazole, ziprasidone, quetiapine, olanzapine, risperidone, or clozapine. These medications possess an additional mode of action that is believed to negate their effect on the nigrostriatal pathway, which means they are associated with fewer extrapyramidal side-effects than "conventional" antipsychotics (chlorpromazine, haloperidol, etc.), although some research has shown that second generation neuroleptics cause EPS at the same rate as the first generation drugs.

Commonly used medications for EPS are anticholinergic agents such as benztropine (Cogentin), diphenhydramine (Benadryl), and trihexyphenidyl (Artane). Another common course of treatment includes dopamine agonist agents such as pramipexole. These medications reverse the symptoms of extrapyramidal side effects caused by antipsychotics or other drugs that either directly or indirectly inhibit dopaminergic neurotransmission.

Studies are yet to be undertaken on the optimum dosage of the causative drugs to reduce their side effects (extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS)).

Paroxysmal Dyskinesia is not a fatal disease. Life can be extremely difficult with this disease depending on the severity. The prognosis of PD is extremely difficult to determine because the disease varies from person to person. The attacks for PKD can be reduced and managed with proper anticonvulsants, but there is no particular end in sight for any of the PD diseases. PKD has been described to cease for some patients after the age of 20, and two patients have reported to have a family history of the disease where PKD went into complete remission after the age of 23. With PNKD and PED, at this time, there is no proper way to determine an accurate prognosis.

Akathisia is frequently associated with the use of dopamine receptor antagonist antipsychotic drugs. Understanding is still limited on the pathophysiology of akathisia, but it is seen to be associated with medications which block dopaminergic transmission in the brain. Additionally, drugs with successful therapeutic effects in the treatment of medication-induced akathisia have provided additional insight into the involvement of other transmitter systems. These include benzodiazepines, β-adrenergic blockers, and serotonin antagonists. Another major cause of the syndrome is the withdrawal observed in drug dependent individuals. Since dopamine deficiency (or disruptions in dopamine signalling) appears to play an important role in the development of RLS, a form of akathisia focused in the legs, the sudden withdrawal or rapidly decreased dosage of drugs which increase dopamine signalling may create similar deficits of the chemical which mimic dopamine antagonism and thus can precipitate RLS. This is why sudden cessation of opioids, cocaine, serotonergics, and other euphoria-inducing substances commonly produce RLS as a side-effect.

It has been correlated with Parkinson's disease and related syndromes. It is unclear, however, whether this is due more to Parkinson's or the drugs used to treat it, such as carbidopa/levodopa (levocarb).

Antidepressants can also induce the appearance of akathisia, due to increased serotonin signalling within the central nervous system. This also explains why serotonin antagonists are often a very effective treatment.

The 2006 UK study by Healy et al. observed that akathisia is often miscoded in antidepressant clinical trials as "agitation, emotional lability, and hyperkinesis (overactivity)". The study further points out that misdiagnosis of akathisia as simple motor restlessness occurs, but that this is more properly classed as dyskinesia.

It was discovered that akathisia involves increased levels of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, which is associated with mechanisms that regulate aggression, alertness, and arousal.

The table below summarizes factors that can induce akathisia, grouped by type, with examples or brief explanations for each:

All PD associated subtypes have genetic contributions and are likely to run in a families genetic history due to dominant allele mutations. Mutations of identified genes have been leading areas of research in the study and treatment of paroxysmal dyskinesia. PKD, PNKD, and PED are classified as separate subtypes because they all have different presentations of symptoms, but also, because they are believed to have different pathologies.

Interestingly, studies on diseases that are similar in nature to PD have revealed insights into the causes of movement disorders. Hypnogenic paroxysmal dyskinesia is a form of epilepsy affecting the frontal lobe. Single genes have been identified on chromosomes 15, 20, and 21, which contribute to the pathology of these epilepsy disorders. Utilizing new knowledge about pathologies of related and similar disease can shed insight on the causal relationships in paroxysmal dyskinesia.

Pisa syndrome is predominantly caused by a prolonged administration or an overly dosed administration of antipsychotic drugs. Although antipsychotic drugs are known to be the main drugs that are concerned with this syndrome, several other drugs are reported to have caused the syndrome as well. Certain antidepressants, psychoactive drugs, and antiemetics have also been found to cause Pisa syndrome in patients.

Drugs found to have caused Pisa Syndrome:

- Atypical antipsychotic drugs- ex. clozapine, aripiprazole

- Tricyclic antidepressants- ex. clomipramine

- Psychoactive drugs

- Antiemetic drugs

- Cholinesterase inhibitors

- Galantamine

Based on the drugs that caused Pisa syndrome, it has been implicated that the syndrome may be due to a dopaminergic-cholinergic imbalance or a serotonergic or noradrenergic dysfunction. For the development of Pisa syndrome that cannot be alleviated by anticholinergic drugs, it has been considered that asymmetric brain functions or neural transmission may be the underlying mechanism. How these drugs interact with the biochemistry of the brain to cause the syndrome is unknown and a topic of current research.

Anticholinergic drugs have been reported to be extremely effective in 40% of the patients with the Pisa syndrome. Patients with Pisa syndrome that is resistant to anticholinergic drugs is mostly resolved by the reduction of the administration of the antipsychotic drugs as previously mentioned. While the specific pathology underlying idiopathic Pisa syndrome is unknown, the administration of anticholinergic drugs has provided resolution in known cases.

Treatment of tics present in conditions such as Tourette’s syndrome begins with patient, relative, teacher and peer education about the presentation of the tics. Sometimes, pharmacological treatment is unnecessary and tics can be reduced by behavioral therapy such as habit-reversal therapy and/or counseling. Often this route of treatment is difficult because it depends most heavily on patient compliance. Once pharmacological treatment is deemed most appropriate, lowest effective doses should be given first with gradual increases. The most effective drugs belong to the neuroleptic variety such as monoamine-depleting drugs and dopamine receptor-blocking drugs. Of the monoamine-depleting drugs, tetrabenazine is most powerful against tics and results in fewest side effects. A non-neuroleptic drug found to be safe and effective in treating tics is topiramate. Botulinum toxin injection in affected muscles can successfully treat tics; involuntary movements and vocalizations can be reduced, as well as life-threatening tics that have the potential of causing compressive myelopathy or radiculopathy. Surgical treatment for disabling Tourette’s syndrome has been proven effective in cases presenting with self-injury. Deep Brain Stimulation surgery targeting the globus pallidus, thalamus and other areas of the brain may be effective in treating involuntary and possibly life-threatening tics.

The medical treatment of essential tremor at the Movement Disorders Clinic at Baylor College of Medicine begins with minimizing stress and tremorgenic drugs along with recommending a restricted intake of beverages containing caffeine as a precaution, although caffeine has not been shown to significantly intensify the presentation of essential tremor. Alcohol amounting to a blood concentration of only 0.3% has been shown to reduce the amplitude of essential tremor in two-thirds of patients; for this reason it may be used as a prophylactic treatment before events during which one would be embarrassed by the tremor presenting itself. Using alcohol regularly and/or in excess to treat tremors is highly unadvisable, as there is a purported correlation between tremor and alcoholism. Alcohol is thought to stabilize neuronal membranes via potentiation of GABA receptor-mediated chloride influx. It has been demonstrated in essential tremor animal models that the food additive 1-octanol suppresses tremors induced by harmaline, and decreases the amplitude of essential tremor for about 90 minutes.

Two of the most valuable drug treatments for essential tremor are propranolol, a beta blocker, and primidone, an anticonvulsant. Propranolol is much more effective for hand tremor than head and voice tremor. Some beta-adrenergic blockers (beta blockers) are not lipid-soluble and therefore cannot cross the blood–brain barrier (propranolol being an exception), but can still act against tremors; this indicates that this drug’s mechanism of therapy may be influenced by peripheral beta-adrenergic receptors. Primidone’s mechanism of tremor prevention has been shown significantly in controlled clinical studies. The benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam and barbiturates have been shown to reduce presentation of several types of tremor, including the essential variety. Controlled clinical trials of gabapentin yielded mixed results in efficacy against essential tremor while topiramate was shown to be effective in a larger double-blind controlled study, resulting in both lower Fahn-Tolosa-Marin tremor scale ratings and better function and disability as compared to placebo.

It has been shown in two double-blind controlled studies that injection of botulinum toxin into muscles used to produce oscillatory movements of essential tremors, such as forearm, wrist and finger flexors, may decrease the amplitude of hand tremor for approximately three months and that injections of the toxin may reduce essential tremor presenting in the head and voice. The toxin also may help tremor causing difficulty in writing, although properly adapted writing devices may be more efficient. Due to high incidence of side effects, use of botulinum toxin has only received a C level of support from the scientific community.

Deep brain stimulation toward the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus and potentially the subthalamic nucleus and caudal zona incerta nucleus have been shown to reduce tremor in numerous studies. That toward the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus has been shown to reduce contralateral and some ipsilateral tremor along with tremors of the cerebellar outflow, head, resting state and those related to hand tasks; however, the treatment has been shown to induce difficulty articulating thoughts (dysarthria), and loss of coordination and balance in long-term studies. Motor cortex stimulation is another option shown to be viable in numerous clinical trials.

Paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia has been shown to be inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. In 2011, the PRRT2 gene on chromosome 16 was identified as the cause of the disease. The researchers looked at the genetics of eight families with strong histories of PKD. They employed whole genome sequencing, along with Sanger sequencing to identify the gene that was mutated in these families. The mutations in this gene included a nonsense mutation identified in the genome of one family and an insertion mutation identified in the genome of another family. The researchers then confirmed this gene as the cause of PKD when it was not mutated in the genome of 1000 control patients. Researchers found PRRT2 mutations in 10 of 29 sporadic cases affected with PKD, thus suggests PRRT2 is the gene mutated in a subset of PKD and PKD is genetically heterogeneous. The mechanism of how PRRT2 causes PKD still requires further investigation. However, researchers suggest it may have to do with PRRT2's expression in the basal ganglia, and the expression of an associated protein, SNAP25, in the basal ganglia as well.

Almost all patients respond positively to antiepileptic (anticonvulsant) drugs. One of the drugs most often mentioned in the literature is carbamazepine, and is the most widely used drug for treating PKD. Other anticonvulsants like valproic acid, phenytoin and clonazepam are common alternatives. Other categories of drugs have also been used, such as dopamine affecting drugs like Levodopa or Tetrabenazine. Individuals with the disorder can also modify their behavior to lessen their attacks without the influence of drug therapy. For example, decreasing stress to avoid precipitants can help patients decrease the number of attacks. In addition, avoiding any sudden movements can also prevent an attack. In order to prevent an attack, some individuals use their auras as a warning, while others purposefully perform slow gestures or movements prior to a triggering movement. Many, if not most, individuals end up growing out of the attacks with age, even without medicinal therapy, but some patients will go back to having attacks after a period of remission. In regards to secondary PKD, treatment of the primary condition can lessen the PKD attacks in those individuals.

There are very few reported cases of PED, there are approximately 20 reported sporadic cases of PED and 9 PED families but there is some dispute on the exact number of cases. In addition it appears that PED becomes less severe with aging. Prior to onset of a PED episode some patients reported onset of symptoms including sweating, pallor, and hyperventilation. In brain scans it was observed that patients suffering form frequent PEDs there was increased metabolism in the putamen of the brain and decreased metabolism in the frontal lobe. Another study using subtraction single photon emission computed tomographic (SPECT) imaging technique which was coregistered with an MRI on a patient presented with PED symptoms showed increased cerebral perfusion in the primary somatosensory cortex area, and a mild increase in the region of the primary motor cortex and cerebellum. While all these correlations are not fully understand as to what exactly is happening in the brain it provides areas of interest to study further to hopefully understand PED more fully.

Tremor can be a symptom associated with disorders in those parts of the brain that control muscles throughout the body or in particular areas, such as the hands. Neurological disorders or conditions that can produce tremor include multiple sclerosis, stroke, traumatic brain injury, chronic kidney disease and a number of neurodegenerative diseases that damage or destroy parts of the brainstem or the cerebellum, Parkinson's disease being the one most often associated with tremor. Other causes include the use of drugs (such as amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, corticosteroids, SSRIs) or alcohol, mercury poisoning, or the withdrawal of drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepine. Tremors can also be seen in infants with phenylketonuria (PKU), overactive thyroid or liver failure. Tremors can be an indication of hypoglycemia, along with palpitations, sweating and anxiety.

Tremor can also be caused from lack of sleep, lack of vitamins, or increased stress. Deficiencies of magnesium and thiamine have also been known to cause tremor or shaking, which resolves when the deficiency is corrected. See magnesium in biology. Some forms of tremor are inherited and run in families, while others have no known cause. Tremors can also be caused by some spider bites, e.g. the redback spider of Australia.

Characteristics may include a rhythmic shaking in the hands, arms, head, legs, or trunk; shaky voice; and problems holding things such as a fork or pen. Some tremors may be triggered by or become exacerbated during times of stress or strong emotion, when the individual is physically exhausted, or during certain postures or movements.

Tremor may occur at any age but is most common in middle-age and older persons. It may be occasional, temporary, or occur intermittently. Tremor affects men and women equally.

Movement disorders are clinical syndromes with either an excess of movement or a paucity of voluntary and involuntary movements, unrelated to weakness or spasticity. Movement disorders are synonymous with basal ganglia or extrapyramidal diseases. Movement disorders are conventionally divided into two major categories- "hyperkinetic" and "hypokinetic".

Hyperkinetic movement disorders refer to dyskinesia, or excessive, often repetitive, involuntary movements that intrude upon the normal flow of motor activity.

Hypokinetic movement disorders refer to akinesia (lack of movement), hypokinesia (reduced amplitude of movements), bradykinesia (slow movement) and rigidity. In primary movement disorders, the abnormal movement is the primary manifestation of the disorder. In secondary movement disorders, the abnormal movement is a manifestation of another systemic or neurological disorder.

In most cases, PED is familial, but can also be sporadic. In familial cases, pedigrees examined have shown PED to be an autosomal-dominant inheritance trait. PED also has been associated with Parkinson's disease, epilepsy and migraines, although the exact relationship between these is unknown.

A suspected contributor to familial PED is a mutation in the GLUT1 gene, SLC2A1, which codes for the transporter GLUT1, a protein responsible for glucose entry across the blood–brain barrier. It is not thought that the mutation causes a complete loss of function of the protein but rather only slightly reduces the transporter's activity. In a study of PED patients, a median CSF/blood glucose ratio of .52 compared to a normal .60 was found. In addition, reduced glucose uptake by mutated transporters compared with wild-type in Xenopus oocytes confirmed a pathogenic role of these mutations.

Another recent study was performed to continue to look at the possible connection between PED and mutations on the SLC2A1 gene which codes for the GLUT1 transporter. While PED can occur in isolation it was also noted that it occurs in association with epilepsy as well. In this study the genetics of a five-generation family with history of PED and epilepsy were evaluated. From the results it was noted that most of the mutations were due to frameshift and missense mutations. When looking at homologous GLUT1 transporters in other species it was noted that serine (position 95), valine (position 140), and asparagine (position 317) were highly conserved and therefore mutations in these residues would most likely be pathogenic. Therefore, these are areas of interest when looking at what could lead to PED.All mutations that were observed appeared to only affect the ability of GLUT1 to transport glucose and not the ability for it to be inserted in the membrane. The observed maximum transport velocity of glucose was reduced anywhere from 3 to 10 fold.

A study was performed to determine if the mutation known for the PNKD locus on chromosome 2q33-35 was the cause of PED. In addition, other loci were observed such as the familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) locus on chromosome 19p, or the familial infantile convulsions and paroxysmal choreoathetosis (ICCA). All three of these suspected regions were found to not contain any mutations, and were therefore ruled out as possible candidates for a cause of PED.

A stereotypy (, or ) is a repetitive or ritualistic movement, posture, or utterance. Stereotypies may be simple movements such as body rocking, or complex, such as self-caressing, crossing and uncrossing of legs, and marching in place. They are found in people with intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, tardive dyskinesia and stereotypic movement disorder, but may also be encountered in neurotypical individuals as well. Studies have shown stereotypies associated with some types of schizophrenia. Frontotemporal dementia is also a common neurological cause of repetitive behaviors and stereotypies. Several causes have been hypothesized for stereotypy, and several treatment options are available.

Stereotypy is sometimes called "stimming" in autism, under the hypothesis that it self-stimulates one or more senses. Related terms include "punding" and "tweaking" to describe repetitive behavior that is a side effect of some drugs.

Among people with frontotemporal lobar degeneration, more than half (60%) had stereotypies. The time to onset of stereotypies in people with frontotemporal lobar degeneration may be years (average 2.1 years).

Spasmodic torticollis is one of the most common forms of dystonia seen in neurology clinics, occurring in approximately 0.390% of the United States population in 2007 (390 per 100,000). Worldwide, it has been reported that the incidence rate of spasmodic torticollis is at least 1.2 per 100,000 person years, and a prevalence rate of 57 per 1 million.

The exact prevalence of the disorder is not known; several family and population studies show that as many as 25% of cervical dystonia patients have relatives that are undiagnosed. Studies have shown that spasmodic torticollis is not diagnosed immediately; many patients are diagnosed well after a year of seeking medical attention. A survey of 59 patients diagnosed with spasmodic torticollis show that 43% of the patients visited at least four physicians before the diagnosis was made.

There is a higher prevalence of spasmodic torticollis in females; females are 1.5 times more likely to develop spasmodic torticollis than males. The prevalence rate of spasmodic torticollis also increases with age, most patients show symptoms from ages 50–69. The average onset age of spasmodic torticollis is 41.

Stereotypies also occur in non-human animals. It is considered an abnormal behavior and is sometimes seen in captive animals, particularly those held in small enclosures with little opportunity to engage in more normal behaviors. These behaviors may be maladaptive, involving self-injury or reduced reproductive success, and in laboratory animals can confound behavioral research. Examples of stereotypical behaviors include pacing, rocking, swimming in circles, excessive sleeping, self-mutilation (including feather picking and excessive grooming), and mouthing cage bars. Stereotypies are seen in many species, including primates, birds, and carnivores. Up to 40% of elephants in zoos display stereotypical behaviors. Stereotypies are well known in stabled horses, usually developing as a result of being confined, particularly with insufficient exercise. They are colloquially called stable vices. They present a management issue, not only leading to facility damage from chewing, kicking, and repetitive motion, but also lead to health consequences for the animal if not addressed.

Stereotypical behaviors are thought to be caused ultimately by artificial environments that do not allow animals to satisfy their normal behavioral needs. Rather than refer to the behavior as abnormal, it has been suggested that it be described as "behavior indicative of an abnormal environment." Stereotypies are correlated with altered behavioral response selection in the basal ganglia. As stereotypies are frequently viewed as a sign of psychological distress in animals, there is also an animal welfare issue involved.

Stereotypical behavior can sometimes be reduced or eliminated by environmental enrichment, including larger and more stimulating enclosures, training, and introductions of stimuli (such as objects, sounds, or scents) to the animal's environment. The enrichment must be varied to remain effective for any length of time. Housing social animals with other members of their species is also helpful. But once the behavior is established, it is sometimes impossible to eliminate due to alterations in the brain.

When other conditions lead to spasmodic torticollis, it is said that the spasmodic torticollis is secondary. A variety of conditions can cause brain injury, from external factors to diseases. These conditions are listed below:

- Perinatal (during birth) cerebral injury

- Kernicterus

- Cerebrovascular diseases

- Drug induced

- Central nervous system tumor

- Peripheral or central trauma

- Infectious or post infectious encephalopathies

- Toxins

- Metabolic

- Paraneoplastic syndromes

- Central pontine myelinolysis

Secondary spasmodic torticollis is diagnosed when any of the following are present: history of exogenous insult or exposure, neurological abnormalities other than dystonia, abnormalities on brain imaging, particularly in the basal ganglia.

Treatment depends upon the underlying disorder. Movement disorders have been known to be associated with a variety of autoimmune diseases.