Renal tuberculosis

And other causes of hypercalcemia (and thus hypercalciuria)

- Immobilization (leading to hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria)

- Milk-alkali syndrome

- Hypervitaminosis D

- Multiple myeloma

Nephrocalcinosis Is connected with conditions that cause hypercalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and the increased excretion of calcium, phosphate, and/or oxalate in the urine. A high urine pH can lead to Nephrocalcinosis. In conjustion with Nephrocalcinosis, hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria the following can occur:

- Primary hyperparathyroidism: Nephrocalcinosis is one of the most common symptoms of primary hyperparathyroidism.

- Sarcoidosis: Nephrocalcinosis is one of the most common symptoms.

- Vitamin D therapy: This can cause nephrocalcinosis because of Vitamin D therapy becauseit increase the absorption of ingested calcium and bone resorption, resulting in hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria.

The "APOL1" gene has been proposed as a major genetic risk locus for a spectrum of nondiabetic renal failure in individuals of African origin, these include HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN), primary nonmonogenic forms of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, and hypertension affiliated chronic kidney disease not attributed to other etiologies. Two western African variants in APOL1 have been shown to be associated with end stage kidney disease in African Americans and Hispanic Americans.

Patients with ESKD are at increased overall risk for cancer. This risk is particularly high in younger patients and gradually diminishes with age. Medical specialty professional organizations recommend that physicians do not perform routine cancer screening in patients with limited life expectancies due to ESKD because evidence does not show that such tests lead to improved patient outcomes.

Depending on the cause, a proportion of patients (5–10%) will never regain full kidney function, thus entering end-stage kidney failure and requiring lifelong dialysis or a kidney transplant. Patients with AKI are more likely to die prematurely after being discharged from hospital, even if their kidney function has recovered.

The risk of developing chronic kidney disease is increased (8.8-fold).

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has numerous causes. The most common causes of CKD are diabetes mellitus and long-term, uncontrolled hypertension. Polycystic kidney disease is another well-known cause of CKD. The majority of people afflicted with polycystic kidney disease have a family history of the disease. Other genetic illnesses affect kidney function, as well.

Overuse of common drugs such as ibuprofen, and acetaminophen (paracetamol) can also cause chronic kidney disease.

Some infectious disease agents, such as hantavirus, can attack the kidneys, causing kidney failure.

In ADPKD patients, gradual cyst development and expansion result in kidney enlargement, and during the course of the disease, glomerular filtration rate (GFR) remains normal for decades before kidney function starts to progressively deteriorate, making early prediction of renal outcome difficult. The CRISP study, mentioned in the treatment section above, contributed to build a strong rationale supporting the prognostic value of total kidney volume (TKV) in ADPKD; TKV (evaluated by MRI) increases steadily and a higher rate of kidney enlargement correlated with accelerated decline of GFR, while patient height-adjusted TKV (HtTKV) ≥600 ml/m predicts the development of stage 3 chronic kidney disease within 8 years.

Besides TKV and HtTKV, the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) has also been tentatively used to predict the progression of ADPKD. After the analysis of CT or MRI scans of 590 patients with ADPKD treated at the Mayo Translational Polycystic Kidney Disease Center, Irazabal and colleagues developed an imaging-based classification system to predict the rate of eGFR decline in patients with ADPKD. In this prognostic method, patients are divided into five subclasses of estimated kidney growth rates according to age-specific HtTKV ranges (1A, 6.0%) as delineated in the CRISP study. The decline in eGFR over the years following initial TKV measurement is significantly different between all five patient subclasses, with those in subclass 1E having the most rapid decline.

CKD increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, and people with CKD often have other risk factors for heart disease, such as high blood lipids. The most common cause of death in people with CKD is cardiovascular disease rather than kidney failure.

Chronic kidney disease results in worse all-cause mortality (the overall death rate) which increases as kidney function decreases. The leading cause of death in chronic kidney disease is cardiovascular disease, regardless of whether there is progression to stage 5.

While renal replacement therapies can maintain people indefinitely and prolong life, the quality of life is negatively affected. Kidney transplantation increases the survival of people with stage 5 CKD when compared to other options; however, it is associated with an increased short-term mortality due to complications of the surgery. Transplantation aside, high-intensity home hemodialysis appears to be associated with improved survival and a greater quality of life, when compared to the conventional three-times-a-week hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.

Mortality after AKI remains high. Overall it is 20%, 30% if the patient is referred to nephrology, 50% if dialyzed, and 70% if on ICU.

If AKI develops after major surgery (13.4% of all people who have undergone major surgery) the risk of death is markedly increased (over 12-fold).

There are three main types of primary hyperoxaluria, each associated with specific metabolic defects. Type 1 is the most common and rapidly progressing form, accounting for about 80% of all cases. Type 2 and 3 account for about approximately 10% each of the population.

Mutations in these genes cause a decreased production or activity of the proteins they make, which stops the normal breakdown of glyoxylate.

The long-term use of lithium, a medication commonly used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorders, is known to cause nephropathy.

It is accepted that kidney transplantation is the preferred treatment for ADPKD patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Among American patients on the kidney transplant waiting list (as of December 2011), 7256 (8.4%) were listed due to cystic kidney disease and of the 16,055 renal transplants performed in 2011, 2057 (12.8%) were done for patients with cystic kidney disease, with 1,189 from deceased donors and 868 from living donors.

PKD is caused by abnormal genes which produce a specific abnormal protein which has an adverse affect on tubule development. PKD is a general term for two types, each having their own pathology and genetic cause: autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD).

ADPKD individuals might have a normal life; conversely, ARPKD can cause kidney dysfunction and can lead to kidney failure by the age of 40-60. ADPKD1 and ADPKD2 are very different, in that ADPKD2 is much milder.

Currently, there are no therapies proven effective to prevent the progression of polycystic kidney disease (autosomal dominant).

Despite expensive treatments, lupus nephritis remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in people with relapsing or refractory lupus nephritis.

Increase the water intake to prevent oxalates to precipitate .

Minimize dietary intake of oxalates by restricting the intake of leafy vegetables , sesame seeds , tea , cocoa , beet root , spinach , rhubarb , etc.

Cortical necrosis is a severe and life-threatening condition, with mortality rates over 50%. Those mortality rates are even higher in neonates with the condition due to the overall difficult nature of neonatal care and an increased frequency of comorbid conditions. The extent of the necrosis is a major determinant of the prognosis, which in turn is dependent on the duration of ischemia, duration of oliguria, and the severity of the precipitating conditions. Of those that survive the initial event, there are varying degrees of recovery possible, depending on the extent of the damage.

Scientists from the Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts identified the genetic cause of UKD as mutations in the MUC1 gene.

Medullary cystic kidney disease (MCKD) is an autosomal dominant kidney disorder characterized by tubulointerstitial sclerosis leading to end-stage renal disease. Because the presence of cysts is neither an early nor a typical diagnostic feature of the disease, and because at least 4 different gene mutations may give rise to the condition, the name autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease (ADTKD) has been proposed, to be appended with the underlying genetic variant for a particular individual. Importantly, if cysts are found in the medullary collecting ducts they can result in a shrunken kidney, unlike that of polycystic kidney disease. There are two known forms of medullary cystic kidney disease, mucin-1 kidney disease 1 (MKD1) and mucin-2 kidney disease/uromodulin kidney disease (MKD2). A third form of the disease occurs due to mutations in the gene encoding renin (ADTKD-REN), and has formerly been known as familial juvenile hyperuricemic nephropathy type 2.

Treatment of renal papillary necrosis is supportive, any obstruction (urethral) can be dealt with via stenting. This condition is not linked to a higher possibility of renal failure. Control of infection is important, thus antimicrobial treatment is begun, so as to avert surgery (should the infection not respond).

Prompt treatment of some causes of azotemia can result in restoration of kidney function; delayed treatment may result in permanent loss of renal function. Treatment may include hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, medications to increase cardiac output and increase blood pressure, and the treatment of the condition that caused the azotemia.

In terms of cause, almost any condition that involves ischemia can lead to renal papillary necrosis. A mnemonic for the causes of renal papillary necrosis is POSTCARDS: pyelonephritis, obstruction of the urogenital tract, sickle cell disease, tuberculosis, cirrhosis of the liver, analgesia/alcohol abuse, renal vein thrombosis, diabetes mellitus, and systemic vasculitis. Often, a patient with renal papillary necrosis will have numerous conditions acting synergistically to bring about the disease.

Analgesic nephropathy is a common cause of renal papillary necrosis. The damage is cumulative and most patients of renal papillary necrosis would have ingested at least 2 kg of analgesics in the past. The risk is higher for phenacetin (which was withdrawn from market in the United States) and paracetamol (acetaminophen) compared to aspirin and other NSAIDs.

Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) is a medical condition involving the death of tubular epithelial cells that form the renal tubules of the kidneys. ATN presents with acute kidney injury (AKI) and is one of the most common causes of AKI. Common causes of ATN include low blood pressure and use of nephrotoxic drugs. The presence of "muddy brown casts" of epithelial cells found in the urine during urinalysis is pathognomonic for ATN. Management relies on aggressive treatment of the factors that precipitated ATN (e.g. hydration and cessation of the offending drug). Because the tubular cells continually replace themselves, the overall prognosis for ATN is quite good if the cause is corrected, and recovery is likely within 7 to 21 days.

ATN may be classified as either "toxic" or "ischemic". Toxic ATN occurs when the tubular cells are exposed to a toxic substance (nephrotoxic ATN). Ischemic ATN occurs when the tubular cells do not get enough oxygen, a condition that they are highly sensitive and susceptible to, due to their very high metabolism.

Management of sickle nephropathy is not separate from that of overall patient management. In addition, however, the use of ACE inhibitors has been associated with improvement of the hyperfiltration glomerulopathy. Three-year graft and patient survival in kidney transplant recipients with sickle nephropathy is lower when compared to those with other causes of end-stage kidney disease.