Laryngeal papillomatosis is caused by human papillomavirus (HPV), most frequently by types 6 and 11. The mode of transmission is found to differ depending on age. The disease is typically separated into two forms, juvenile and adult papillomatosis, based on whether it develops before or after 20 years of age. The juvenile form is generally transmitted through contact with a mother’s infected vaginal canal during childbirth. Less is known about transmission in the adult form of this disease, though oral sex has been implicated as a potential mode of transmission. However, it is uncertain whether oral sex would directly transmit the virus or activate the dormant virus that was transmitted at childbirth.

In general, physicians are unsure why only certain people who have been exposed to the HPV types implicated in the disease develop laryngeal papillomatosis. In the case of the juvenile form of the disease, the likelihood of a child born of an infected mother developing laryngeal papillomatosis is low (between 1 in 231 to 1 in 400), even if the mother’s infection is active. Risk factors for a higher likelihood of transmission at childbirth include the first birth, vaginal birth, and teenage mother.

The evolution of laryngeal papillomatosis is highly unpredictable and is characterized by modulation of its severity and variable rate of progression across individuals. While instances of total recovery are observed, the condition is often persistent and lesions can reappear even after treatment. Factors that might affect the clinical course of the condition include: the HPV genotype, the age at onset, the elapsed time between the diagnosis and first treatment in addition to previous medical procedures. Other factors, albeit controversial, such as smoking or the presence gastroesophageal reflux disease might also play a role in the progression of the disease.

The papillomas can travel past the larynx and infect extralaryngeal sites. In more aggressive cases, infection of the lungs can occur with progressive airway obstruction. Although rare (less than 1% of people with laryngeal papillomatosis), transformation from a benign form to a malignant form is also observed. Death can result from these complications (morbidity rate is around 1-2%).

The specific causes of DCIS are still unknown. The risk factors for developing this condition are similar to those for invasive breast cancer.

Some women are however more prone than others to developing DCIS. Women considered at higher risks are those who have a family history of breast cancer, those who have had their periods at an early age or who have had a late menopause. Also, women who have never had children or had them late in life are also more likely to get this condition.

Long-term use of estrogen-progestin hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for more than five years after menopause, genetic mutations (BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes), atypical hyperplasia, as well as radiation exposure or exposure to certain chemicals may also contribute in the development of the condition. Nonetheless, the risk of developing noninvasive cancer increases with age and it is higher in women older than 45 years.

The median age at diagnosis is 38 years. Women are at higher risk for developing breast cancer.

The etiology of florid cutaneous papillomatosis is unknown. It is likely directly induced by an underlying neoplasm secreting a growth factor. One candidate may be alpha-transforming growth factor, structurally related to epidermal growth factor, but antigenically distinct from it. The underlying cancer is most often gastric adenocarcinoma but also with breast cancer, bladder cancer, hepatobiliary cancer, ovarian cancer, uterine cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer and cervical cancer. Other associated underlying malignancies include squamous cell carcinomas and lymphomas.

Nipple adenomas most commonly occur in 30- to 40-year-old women, but can also occur in men. They can also occur at any age, including in the elderly, in adolescence, and in infants.

Intraductal papillomas of the breast are benign lesions with an incidence of approximately 2-3% in humans.

Two types of intraductal papillomas are generally distinguished. The central type develops near the nipple. They are usually solitary and often arise in the period nearing menopause. On the other hand, the peripheral type are often multiple papillomas arising at the peripheral breasts, and are usually found in younger women. The peripheral type are associated with a higher risk of malignancy.

They are the most common cause of bloody nipple discharge in women age 20-40 and generally do not show up on mammography due to their small size. They may be detectable on ultrasound. A galactogram is the most definitive test but is somewhat invasive.

The masses are often too small to be palpated or felt. A galactogram is therefore necessary to rule out the lesion.

Excision is sometimes performed. Microdochectomy/microdochotomy (removal of a breast duct) is the treatment of choice.

Florid cutaneous papillomatosis, malignant acanthosis nigricans, and the sign of Leser-Trélat may be highlighted as part of a continuum, with each having a common or similar pathogenic pathway due to an underlying malignancy that produces a factor epidermal growth factor-like activity.

A nipple adenoma is a type of intraductal papilloma that arises within the lactiferous ducts that are located within the nipple.

80% of cases in the United States are diagnosed by mammography screening.

Surgical removal of the stomach (gastrectomy) is typically recommended after for people after 20 years of age, and before 40 years of age.

Oral florid papillomatosis is a condition characterized by a white mass resembling a cauliflower covering the tongue and extending onto other portions of the mucous membranes. This is a type of verrucous carcinoma.

Little is known about the total incidence of salivary gland tumours as most benign tumours go unrecorded in national cancer registries. The majority of salivary tumours are benign (65-70%). Within the parotid gland 75 - 80% of tumours are benign. Around 50% of the tumours found in the submandibular glands are benign. Sublingual gland tumours are very rare but if present, they are most likely to be malignant.

In the United States, salivary gland cancers are uncommon with an incidence rate of 1.7 in 100000 between 2009 and 2013.

Cystitis glandularis is a term describing a metaplasial transformation of mucosal cells lining the urinary bladder. The main importance is in histopathology, distinguishing the metaplastic change from urothelial cell carcinoma. It is a very common finding in bladder biopsies and cystectomies, and most often found in the trigone area. Cystitis glandularis lesions are usually present as small microscopic foci; however, occasionally it can form raised intramucosal or polypoid lesions. The cystitis glandularis lesions are within the submucosa.

Carcinoma "in situ" is, by definition, a localized phenomenon, with no potential for metastasis unless it progresses into cancer. Therefore, its removal eliminates the risk of subsequent progression into a life-threatening condition.

Some forms of CIS (e.g., colon polyps and polypoid tumours of the bladder) can be removed using an endoscope, without conventional surgical resection. Dysplasia of the uterine cervix is removed by excision (cutting it out) or by burning with a laser. Bowen's disease of the skin is removed by excision. Other forms require major surgery, the best known being intraductal carcinoma of the breast (also treated with radiotherapy). One of the most dangerous forms of CIS is the "pneumonic form" of BAC of the lung, which can require extensive surgical removal of large parts of the lung. When too large, it often cannot be completely removed, with eventual disease progression and death of the patient.

Because Cowden syndrome can be difficult to diagnose, the exact prevalence is unknown; however, it probably occurs in at least 1 in 200,000 people.

A 2010 review of 211 patients (21 from one center, and the remaining 190 from the external literature) studied the risks for cancer and Lhermitte-Duclos disease in Cowden syndrome patients.

The cumulative lifetime (age 70 years) risks were 89% for any cancer diagnosis (95% confidence interval (CI) = 80%,95%), breast cancer [female] 81% (CI = 66%,90%), LDD 32% (CI = 19%,49%), thyroid cancer 21% (CI = 14%,29%), endometrial cancer 19% (CI = 10%,32%) and renal cancer 15% (CI = 6%,32%). A previously unreported increased lifetime risk for colorectal cancer was identified (16%, CI = 8%,24%). Male CS patients had fewer cancers diagnosed than female patients and often had cancers not classically associated with CS.

Salivary gland tumours or neoplasms are tumours that form in the tissues of salivary glands. The salivary glands are classified as major or minor. The major salivary glands consist of the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands. The minor salivary glands consist of 800-1000 small mucus-secreting glands located throughout the lining of the oral cavity.

Carcinoma "in situ (CIS), also known as in situ" neoplasm, is a group of abnormal cells. While they are a form of neoplasm there is disagreement over whether CIS should be classified as cancer. This controversy also depends on the exact CIS in question (i.e. cervical, skin, breast). Some authors do not classify them as cancer, however, recognizing that they can potentially become cancer. Others classify certain types as a non-invasive form of cancer. The term "pre-cancer" has also been used.

These abnormal cells grow in their normal place, thus ""in situ"" (from Latin for "in its place"). For example, carcinoma "in situ" of the skin, also called Bowen's disease, is the accumulation of dysplastic epidermal cells within the epidermis only, that has failed to penetrate into the deeper dermis. For this reason, CIS will usually not form a tumor. Rather, the lesion is flat (in the skin, cervix, etc.) or follows the existing architecture of the organ (in the breast, lung, etc.). Exceptions include CIS of the colon (polyps), the bladder (preinvasive papillary cancer), or the breast (ductal carcinoma "in situ" or lobular carcinoma "in situ").

Many forms of CIS have a high probability of progression into cancer, and therefore removal may be recommended; however, progression of CIS is known to be highly variable and not all CIS becomes invasive cancer.

In the TNM classification, carcinoma "in situ" is reported as TisN0M0 (stage 0).

Papillomatosis cutis carcinoides (also known as "Gottron's carcinoid papillomatosis" and "Papillomatosis cutis carcinoides of Gottron–Eisenlohr") is a cutaneous condition characterized by verrucous skin lesions, and is due to an HPV infection of the skin.

Patients are usually managed by a multidisciplinary team including surgeons, gynecologists, and dermatologists because of the complex nature of this disorder. Follow-up for the increased risk of breast cancer risk includes monthly breast self-examination, annual breast examination, and mammography at age 30 or five years earlier than the youngest age of breast cancer in the family. The magnitude of the risk of breast cancer justifies routine screening with breast MRI as per published guidelines.

There are two main types of cystitis glandularis, non-mucinous and mucinous (intestinal). The difference is in the cellular production of mucin, a normal feature of colonic and intestinal epithelial cells but not of urothelial cells. Another distinction is made between focal areas and diffuse involvement of the bladder. Whereas focal areas are more common, diffuse involvement is seen in chronically irritated bladders, such as in paraplegics or those with bladder stones or indwelling catheters. Individuals with diffuse intestinal-type cystitis glandularis are at increased risk for developing bladder cancer.

Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN) is a type of tumor that can occur within the cells of the pancreatic duct. IPMN tumors produce mucus, and this mucus can form pancreatic cysts. Although intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms are benign tumors, they can progress to pancreatic cancer. As such IPMN is viewed as a precancerous condition. Once an intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm has been found, the management options include close monitoring and pre-emptive surgery.

Papillomatosis is skin surface elevation caused by hyperplasia and enlargement of contiguous dermal papillae. These papillary projections of the epidermis form an undulating surface under microscopic examination.

Pathologists classify intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs) into two broad groups - those that are associated with an invasive cancer and those that are not associated with an invasive cancer. This separation has critical prognostic significance. Patients with a surgically resected intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm without an associated invasive cancer have an excellent prognosis (>95% will be cured), while patients with a surgically resected intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm with an associated invasive cancer have a worse prognosis. Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms without an associated invasive cancer can be further subcategorized into three groups. They are IPMN with low-grade dysplasia, IPMN with moderate dysplasia, and IPMN with high-grade dysplasia. This categorization is less important than the separation of IPMNs with an associated cancer from IPMNs without an associated invasive cancer, but this categorization is useful as IPMNs are believed to progress from low-grade dysplasia to moderate dysplasia to high-grade dysplasia to an IPMN with an associated invasive cancer.

Pancreatic serous cystadenoma, also known as serous cystadenoma of the pancreas and serous microcystic adenoma, a benign tumour of pancreas. It is usually found in the head of the pancreas, and may be associated with von Hippel-Lindau syndrome.

In contrast to some of the other cyst-forming tumors of the pancreas (such as the intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm and the mucinous cystic neoplasm), serous cystic neoplasms are almost always entirely benign. There are some exceptions; rare case reports have described isolated malignant serous cystadenocarcinomas. In addition, serous cystic neoplasms slowly grow, and if they grow large enough they can press on adjacent organs and cause symptoms.