Biliary atresia seems to affect females slightly more often than males, and Asians and African Americans more often than Caucasians. It is common for only one child in a pair of twins or within the same family to have the condition. There seems to be no link to medications or immunizations given immediately before or during pregnancy. Diabetes during pregnancy particularly during the first trimester seems to predispose to a number of distinct congenital abnormalities in the infant such as sacral agenesis and the syndromic form of biliary atresia.

Choledochal cysts are treated by surgical excision of the cyst with the formation of a roux-en-Y anastomosis hepaticojujenostomy/ choledochojujenostomy to the biliary duct.

Future complications include cholangitis and a 2% risk of malignancy, which may develop in any part of the biliary tree. A recent article published in Journal of Surgery suggested that choledochal cysts could also be treated with single-incision laparoscopic hepaticojejunostomy with comparable results and less scarring. In cases of saccular type of cyst, excision and placement of T-shaped tube is done.

Currently, there is no accepted indication for fetal intervention in the management of prenatally suspected choledochal cysts.

Urethral diverticulum can occur in men, and can cause complications including kidney stones and urinary tract infections.

Pancreas divisum in individuals with no symptoms does not require treatment. Treatment of those with symptoms varies and has not been well established. A surgeon may attempt a sphincterotomy by cutting the minor papilla to enlarge the opening and allow pancreatic enzymes to flow normally. During surgery, a stent may be inserted into the duct to ensure that the duct will not close causing a blockage. This surgery can cause pancreatitis in patients, or in rare cases, kidney failure and death.

An association with adenoma of the minor papilla has been reported.

The incidence of urethral diverticulum has been increasing in the 2000s, likely due to increasing diagnosis and detection of the condition. It is estimated to be present in as low as 0.02% of all women and as high as 6% of all women, and 40% of women with lower urinary tract symptoms. Most symptomatic urethral diverticula are present in women from 30–60 years old.

84% of periurethral masses are due to urethral diverticula.

Mortality is indirect and caused by complications. After cholangitis occurs, patients typically die within 5–10 years.

Involutional stenosis is probably the most common cause of NLD obstruction in older persons. It affects women twice as frequently as men. Although the inciting event in this process is unknown, clinicopathologic study suggests that compression of the lumen of the NLD is caused by inflammatory infiltrates and edema. This may be the result of an unidentified infection or possibly an autoimmune disease.

Pancreas or Pancreatic divisum is a congenital anomaly in the anatomy of the ducts of the pancreas in which a single pancreatic duct is not formed, but rather remains as two distinct dorsal and ventral ducts.

Salivary gland atresia is congenital blockage or absence of the orifice of a major salivary gland duct or part of the duct itself.

It is a very rare condition. The submandibular salivary gland duct is usually involved, having failed to cannulate during embryological development. The condition first becomes apparent in the first few days after birth where a submandibular swelling caused by a retention cyst is noticed.

Sinus disease often occurs in conjunction with, and in other instances may contribute to the development of NLD obstruction. Patients should be asked about previous sinus surgery, as the NLD is sometimes damaged when the maxillary sinus ostium is being enlarged anteriorly.

Caroli disease is typically found in Asia, and diagnosed in persons under the age of 22. Cases have also been found in infants and adults. As medical imaging technology improves, diagnostic age decreases.

Mirizzi's syndrome occurs in approximately 0.1% of patients with gallstones. It is found in 0.7 to 2.5 percent of cholecystectomies.

It affects males and females equally, but tends to affect older people more often. There is no evidence of race having any bearing on the epidemiology.

A persistent thyroglossal duct is a usually benign medical condition in which the thyroglossal duct, a structure usually only found during embryonic development, fails to atrophy. The duct persists as a midline structure forming an open connection between the back of the tongue and the thyroid gland.This opening can lead to fluid accumulation and infection, which necessitate the removal of the duct.

In the Western world, about 15% of all people have gallstones in their gallbladder but the majority are unaware of this and have no symptoms. Over ten years, 15–26% will suffer one or more episodes of biliary colic (abdominal pain due to the passage of gallstones through the bile duct into the digestive tract), and 2–3% will develop complications of obstruction: acute pancreatitis, cholecystitis or acute cholangitis. Prevalence of gallstone disease increases with age and body mass index (a marker of obesity). However, the risk is also increased in those who lose weight rapidly (e.g. after weight loss surgery) due to alterations in the composition of the bile that makes it prone to form stones. Gallstones are slightly more common in women than in men, and pregnancy increases the risk further.

Some cases of biliary atresia may result from exposure to aflatoxin B1, and to a lesser extent aflatoxin B2 during late pregnancy. Intact maternal detoxification protects baby during intrauterine life, yet after delivery the baby struggles with the aflatoxin in its blood and liver. Moreover, the baby feeds aflatoxin M1 from its mom, as aflatoxin M1 is the detoxification product of aflatoxin B1. It is a milder toxin that causes cholangitis in the baby.

There are isolated examples of biliary atresia in animals. For instance, lambs born to sheep grazing on land contaminated with a weed (Red Crumbweed) developed biliary atresia at certain times. The plants were later found to contain a toxin, now called biliatresone Studies are ongoing to determine whether there is a link between human cases of biliary atresia and toxins such as biliatresone. There are some indications that a metabolite of certain human gut bacteria may be similar to biliatresone.

Choledochal cysts (a.k.a. bile duct cyst) are congenital conditions involving cystic dilatation of bile ducts. They are uncommon in western countries but not as rare in East Asian nations like Japan and China.

Acute cholangitis carries a significant risk of death, the leading cause being irreversible shock with multiple organ failure (a possible complication of severe infections). Improvements in diagnosis and treatment have led to a reduction in mortality: before 1980, the mortality rate was greater than 50%, but after 1980 it was 10–30%. Patients with signs of multiple organ failure are likely to die unless they undergo early biliary drainage and treatment with systemic antibiotics. Other causes of death following severe cholangitis include heart failure and pneumonia.

Risk factors indicating an increased risk of death include older age, female gender, a history of liver cirrhosis, biliary narrowing due to cancer, acute renal failure and the presence of liver abscesses. Complications following severe cholangitis include renal failure, respiratory failure (inability of the respiratory system to oxygenate blood and/or eliminate carbon dioxide), cardiac arrhythmia, wound infection, pneumonia, gastrointestinal bleeding and myocardial ischemia (lack of blood flow to the heart, leading to heart attacks).

Sialolithiasis (also termed salivary calculi, or salivary stones), is a condition where a calcified mass or "sialolith" forms within a salivary gland, usually in the duct of the submandibular gland (also termed "Wharton's duct"). Less commonly the parotid gland or rarely the sublingual gland or a minor salivary gland may develop salivary stones.

The usual symptoms are pain and swelling of the affected salivary gland, both of which get worse when salivary flow is stimulated, e.g. with the sight, thought, smell or taste of food, or with hunger or chewing. This is often termed "mealtime syndrome". Inflammation or infection of the gland may develop as a result. Sialolithiasis may also develop because of the presence of existing chronic infection of the glands, dehydration (e.g. use of phenothiazines), Sjögren's syndrome and/or increased local levels of calcium, but in many instances the cause is idiopathic (unknown).

The condition is usually managed by removing the stone, and several different techniques are available. Rarely, removal of the submandibular gland may become necessary in cases of recurrent stone formation. Sialolithiasis is common, accounting for about 50% of all disease occurring in the major salivary glands and causing symptoms in about 0.45% of the general population. Persons aged 30–60 and males are more likely to develop sialolithiasis.

Urinary tract obstruction as a congenital disorder results in oligohydramnios which in turn can lead to the Potter sequence of atypical physical appearance. Pulmonary hypoplasia is by far the main cause of death in the early neonatal period for children with congenital lower urinary tract obstruction.

Fetal surgery of congenital lower urinary tract obstruction seems to improve survival, according to a randomized yet small study.

Multiple and large gallstones can become impacted in the Hartmann's pouch of the gallbladder, leading to chronic inflammation - which leads to compression of the common bile duct (CBD), necrosis, fibrosis, and ultimately fistula formation into the adjacent common hepatic duct (CHD) or common bile duct (CBD). As a result, the CHD / CBD becomes obstructed by either scar or stone, resulting in obstructive jaundice. It can be divided into four types.

Type I – No fistula present

- Type IA – Presence of the cystic duct

- Type IB – Obliteration of the cystic duct

Types II–IV – Fistula present

- Type II – Defect smaller than 33% of the CHD diameter

- Type III – Defect 33–66% of the CHD diameter

- Type IV – Defect larger than 66% of the CHD diameter

Stones can cause disease by several mechanisms:

- Irritation of nearby tissues, causing pain, swelling, and inflammation

- Obstruction of an opening or duct, interfering with normal flow and disrupting the function of the organ in question

- Predisposition to infection (often due to disruption of normal flow)

A number of important medical conditions are caused by stones:

- Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones)

- Can cause hydronephrosis (swollen kidneys) and renal failure

- Can predispose to pyelonephritis (kidney infections)

- Can progress to urolithiasis

- Urolithiasis (urinary bladder stones)

- Can progress to bladder outlet obstruction

- Cholelithiasis (gallstones)

- Can predispose to cholecystitis (gall bladder infections) and ascending cholangitis (biliary tree infection)

- Can progress to choledocholithiasis (gallstones in the bile duct) and gallstone pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)

- Gastric calculi can cause colic, obstruction, torsion, and necrosis.

A meta-analysis on the influence of voiding position on urodynamics in healthy males and males with LUTS showed that in the sitting position, the residual urine in the bladder was significantly reduced. The other parameters, namely the maximum urinary flow and the voiding time were increased and decreased respectively. For healthy males, no influence was found on these parameters, meaning that they can urinate in either position.

In order to prevent further cysts and infections from forming, the thyroglossal duct and all of its branches are removed from the throat and neck area. A procedure, known as the Sistrunk procedure, is considered to be the standard procedure and involves removal of portions of the hyoid bone and core tissue of the suprahyoid region. Cysts will often reoccur if the entire duct is not removed, so reoccurrence requires a wider range of tissue to be removed in a subsequent surgery.

Delaying the surgical procedure almost always leads to recurrent infections, which will continue to delay the needed treatment. The Sistrunk procedure has a reoccurrence rate of less than 5%, proving it is extremely effective at removing the majority of traces of the persistent thyroglossal duct.

There are thought to be a series of stages that lead to the formation of a calculus ("lithogenesis"). Initially, factors such as abnormalities in calcium metabolism, dehydration, reduced salivary flow rate, altered acidity (pH) of saliva caused by oropharyngeal infections, and altered solubility of crystalloids, leading to precipitation of mineral salts, are involved. Other sources state that no systemic abnormality of calcium or phosphate metabolism is responsible.

The next stage involves the formation of a which is successively layered with organic and inorganic material, eventually forming a calcified mass. In about 15-20% of cases the sialolith will not be sufficiently calcified to appear radiopaque on a radiograph, and therefore be difficult to detect.

Other sources suggest a retrograde theory of lithogenesis, where food debris, bacteria or foreign bodies from the mouth enter the ducts of a salivary gland and are trapped by abnormalities in the sphincter mechanism of the duct opening (the papilla), which are reported in 90% of cases. Fragments of bacteria from salivary calculi were reported to be Streptococci species which are part of the normal oral microbiota and are present in dental plaque.

Stone formation occurs most commonly in the submandibular gland for several reasons. The concentration of calcium in saliva produced by the submandibular gland is twice that of the saliva produced by the parotid gland. The submandibular gland saliva is also relatively alkaline and mucous. The submandibular duct (Wharton's duct) is long, meaning that saliva secretions must travel further before being discharged into the mouth. The duct possesses two bends, the first at the posterior border of the mylohyoid muscle and the second near the duct orifice. The flow of saliva from the submandibular gland is often against gravity due to variations in the location of the duct orifice. The orifice itself is smaller than that of the parotid. These factors all promote slowing and stasis of saliva in the submandibular duct, making the formation of an obstruction with subsequent calcification more likely.

Salivary calculi sometimes are associated with other salivary diseases, e.g. sialoliths occur in two thirds of cases of chronic sialadenitis, although obstructive sialadenitis is often a consequence of sialolithiasis. Gout may also cause salivary stones, although in this case they are composed of uric acid crystals rather than the normal composition of salivary stones.

Dacryocystocele or timo cyst is a benign, bluish-gray mass in the inferomedial canthus that forms as a result of a narrowing or obstruction of the nasolacrimal duct, usually during prenatal development. The prevalence of dacryocystocele is 1 in 3884 live births.