In the case of a fetus being too large, some obstetricians recommend induction of labour for earlier delivery. Diagnosis of CPD in active labour will usually result in a Caesarian section.

A large fetus can be one case of CPD. A large fetus can be caused by gestational diabetes, postterm pregnancy, genetic factors, and multiparity.

The shape of the pelvis can also be a cause of CPD. The pelvis may be too small, or the shape of the pelvis may be malformed. Shorter women are more likely to suffer from CPD as are adolescents.

Many factors determine the optimal way to deliver a baby. A vertex presentation is the ideal situation for a vaginal birth, however, occiput posterior positions tend to proceed more slowly, often requiring an intervention in the form of forceps, vacuum extraction, or Cesarean section. In a large study, a majority of brow presentations were delivered by Cesarean section, however, because of 'postmaturity', factors other than labour dynamics may have played a role. Most face presentations can be delivered vaginally as long as the chin is anterior; there is no increase in fetal or maternal mortality. Mento-posterior positions cannot be delivered vaginally in most cases (unless rotated) and are candidates for Cesarean section in contemporary management.

For most women, PGP resolves in weeks after delivery but for some it can last for years resulting in a reduced tolerance for weight bearing activities. PGP can take from 11 weeks, 6 months or even up to 2 years postpartum to subside. However, some research supports that the average time to complete recovery is 6.25 years, and the more severe the case is, the longer recovery period.

Overall, about 45% of all pregnant women and 25% of all women postpartum suffer from PGP. During pregnancy, serious pain occurs in about 25%, and severe disability in about 8% of patients. After pregnancy, problems are serious in about 7%. There is no correlation between age, culture, nationality and numbers of pregnancies that determine a higher incidence of PGP.

If a woman experiences PGP during one pregnancy, she is more likely to experience it in subsequent pregnancies; but the severity cannot be determined.

The piriform (pear-shaped) morphology of the uterus has been given as the major cause for the finding that most singletons favor the cephalic presentation at term. The fundus is larger and thus a fetus will adapt its position so that the bulkier and more movable podalic pole makes use of it, while the head moves to the opposite site. Factors that influence this positioning include the gestational age (earlier in gestation breech presentations are more common as the head is relatively bigger), size of the head, malformations, amount of amniotic fluid, presence of multiple gestations, presence of tumors, and others.

Two-thirds of all vertex presentations are LOA, possibly because of the asymmetry created by the descending colon that is on the left side of the pelvis .

Risk factors for developing a cystocele are:

- an occupation involving or history of heavy lifting

- pregnancy and childbirth

- chronic lung disease/smoking

- family history of cystocele

- exercising incorrectly

- ethnicity (risk is greater for Hispanic and whites)

- hypoestrogenism

- pelvic floor trauma

- connective tissue disorders

- spina bifida

- hysterectomy

- cancer treatment of pelvic organs* childbirth; correlates to the number of births

- forceps delivery

- age

- chronically high intra-abdominal pressures

- chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

- constipation

- obesity

Connective tissue disorders predispose women to developing cystocele and other pelvic organ prolapse. The tensile strength of the vaginal wall decreases when the structure of the collagen fibers change and become weaker.

PGP in pregnancy seriously interferes with participation in society and activities of daily life; the average sick leave due to posterior pelvic pain during pregnancy is 7 to 12 weeks.

In some cases women with PGP may also experience emotional problems such as anxiety over the cause of pain, resentment, anger, lack of self-esteem, frustration and depression; she is three times more likely to suffer postpartum depressive symptoms. Other psychosocial risk factors associated with woman experiencing PGP include higher level of stress, low job satisfaction and poorer relationship with spouse.

In sheep, intrauterine growth restriction can be caused by heat stress in early to mid pregnancy. The effect is attributed to reduced placental development causing reduced fetal growth. Hormonal effects appear implicated in the reduced placental development. Although early reduction of placental development is not accompanied by concurrent reduction of fetal growth; it tends to limit fetal growth later in gestation. Normally, ovine placental mass increases until about day 70 of gestation, but high demand on the placenta for fetal growth occurs later. (For example, research results suggest that a normal average singleton Suffolk x Targhee sheep fetus has a mass of about 0.15 kg at day 70, and growth rates of about 31 g/day at day 80, 129 g/day at day 120 and 199 g/day at day 140 of gestation, reaching a mass of about 6.21 kg at day 140, a few days before parturition.)

In adolescent ewes (i.e. ewe hoggets), overfeeding during pregnancy can also cause intrauterine growth restriction, by altering nutrient partitioning between dam and conceptus. Fetal growth restriction in adolescent ewes overnourished during early to mid pregnancy is not avoided by switching to lower nutrient intake after day 90 of gestation; whereas such switching at day 50 does result in greater placental growth and enhanced pregnancy outcome. Practical implications include the importance of estimating a threshold for "overnutrition" in management of pregnant ewe hoggets. In a study of Romney and Coopworth ewe hoggets bred to Perendale rams, feeding to approximate a conceptus-free live mass gain of 0.15 kg/day (i.e. in addition to conceptus mass), commencing 13 days after the midpoint of a synchronized breeding period, yielded no reduction in lamb birth mass, where compared with feeding treatments yielding conceptus-free live mass gains of about 0 and 0.075 kg/day.

In both of the above models of IUGR in sheep, the absolute magnitude of uterine blood flow is reduced. Evidence of substantial reduction of placental glucose transport capacity has been observed in pregnant ewes that had been heat-stressed during placental development.

IUGR affects 3-10% of pregnancies. 20% of stillborn infants have IUGR. Perinatal mortality rates are 4-8 times higher for infants with IUGR, and morbidity is present in 50% of surviving infants.

According to the theory of thrifty phenotype, intrauterine growth restriction triggers epigenetic responses in the fetus that are otherwise activated in times of chronic food shortage. If the offspring actually develops in an environment rich in food it may be more prone to metabolic disorders, such as obesity and type II diabetes.

A pelvic digit, pelvic finger, or pelvic rib is a rare congenital abnormality in humans, in which bone tissue develops in the soft tissue near the pelvis, resembling a rib or finger and often divided into one or more segments with pseudo-articulations. Pelvic digits are typically benign and asymptomatic, and are usually discovered accidentally. Approximately 41 cases have been reported.

The pelvic digit was first reported by D. Sullivan and W.S. Cornwell in 1974. Pelvic digits may be located at any level of the pelvis, the lower ribs, or even the anterior abdominal wall. It is theorized that pelvic digit anomalies arise during the mesenchymal stage of bone growth, within the first six weeks of embryogenesis. Their formation may result from a failure of the primordium of the coccyx to fuse to the vertebral column, leading to the independent development of a proto-rib structure.

A cystocele occurs when the muscles, fascia, tendons and connective tissues between a woman’s bladder and vagina weaken, or detach. The type of cystocele that can develop can be due to to three vaginal wall attachment failures. The midline defect, the paravaginal defect, and the transverse defect. The midline defect is a cystocele is caused by the overstretching of the vaginal wall. The paravaginal defect is the separation of the vaginal connective tissue at the arcus tendineus fascia pelvis. The transverse defect is when the pubocervical fascia becomes detached from the top (apex) of the vagina. There is some pelvic prolapse in 40-60% of women who have given birth. Muscle injuries have been identified in women with cystocele. These injuries are more likely to occur in women who have given birth than those who have not. These muscular injuries result in less support to the anterior vaginal wall.

Some women with connective tissue disorders are predisposed to developing anterior vaginal wall collapse. Up to one third of women with Marfan syndrome have a history of vaginal wall collapse. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome in women is associated with a rate of 3 out of 4.

Post-maturity syndrome develops in about 20% of human pregnancies continuing past the expected dates. Features of post-maturity syndrome include oligohydramnios, meconium aspiration, macrosomia and fetal problems such as dry peeling skin, overgrown nails, abundant scalp hair, visible creases on palms and soles, minimal fat deposition and skin colour become green or yellow due to meconeum staining.

If there are no maternal or fetal complications, labour can be induced after assessing the favourability of the cervix and excluding cephalo-pelvic disproportions. Otherwise emergency lower segment Caesarean section (LSCS) should be made.

The syndrome was first described by Stewart H. Clifford in 1954.

Over one million cases of acute salpingitis are reported every year in the US, but the number of incidents is probably larger, due to incomplete and untimely reporting methods and that many cases are reported first when the illness has gone so far that it has developed chronic complications. For women age 16–25, salpingitis is the most common serious infection. It affects approximately 11% of females of reproductive age.

Salpingitis has a higher incidence among members of lower socioeconomic classes. However, this is thought of being an effect of earlier sex debut, multiple partners, and decreased ability to receive proper health care rather than any independent risk factor for salpingitis.

As an effect of an increased risk due to multiple partners, the prevalence of salpingitis is highest for people age 15–24 years. Decreased awareness of symptoms and less will to use contraceptives are also common in this group, raising the occurrence of salpingitis.

Genital prolapse occurs in about 316 million women worldwide as of 2010 (9.3% of all females).

Although rare, this condition is often treatable with surgery. In most cases, the blind hemivagina is opened, and the fluid drained.

Birth injuries that result in the formation of fistulas and urinary and fecal incontinence have been found to be strongly associated with economic and cultural factors. Teenagers and women who sustain injuries that develop into ureterovaginal fistulas during childbirth suffer significant social stigma. Ureterovaginal fistulas related to prolonged, obstructed labor are rare in developed nations but are more common in countries where access to emergent obstetrical care is limited.

Congenital fiber type disproportion (CFTD) is an inherited form of myopathy with small type 1 muscle fibers that may occur in a number of neurological disorders. It has a relatively good outcome and follows a stable course. While the exact genetics is unclear there is an association with TPM3, ACTA1 and SEPN1 gene mutations. It is a rare condition.

OHVIRA, or Herlyn-Werner-Wunderlich syndrome, is a rare anomaly of the Müllerian ducts. In most cases, it is presented as a double uterus with unilateral obstructed (or blind) hemivagina and ipsilateral renal agenesis. Although the true incidence is unknown, it has been reported to be between 0.1% and 3.8%.

For the affected, 20% need hospitalization.

Regarding patients age 15–44 years, 0.29 per 100,000 dies from salpingitis.

However, salpingitis can also lead to infertility because the eggs released in ovulation can't get contact with the sperm. Approximately 75,000-225,000 cases of infertility in the US are caused by salpingitis. The more times one has the infection, the greater the risk of infertility. With one episode of salpingitis, the risk of infertility is 8-17%. With 3 episodes of salpingitis, the risk is 40-60%, although the exact risk depends on the severity of each episode.

In addition, damaged oviducts increase the risk of ectopic pregnancy. Thus, if one has had salpingitis, the risk of a pregnancy to become ectopic is 7 to 10-fold as large. Half of ectopic pregnancies are due to a salpingitis infection.

Other complications are:

- Infection of ovaries and uterus

- Infection of sex partners

- An abscess on the ovary

The epidemiology of TOA is closely related to that of pelvic inflammatory disease which is estimated to one million people yearly.

Imperforate hymen is the most common vaginal obstruction of congenital origin. Estimates of the frequency of imperforate hymen vary from 1 in 1000 to 1 in 10,000 females.

Suudu (Tamil, pronounced ) is a culture-specific syndrome of painful urination and pelvic "heat" familiar in South India, especially in the Tamil culture. It occurs in males and females. It is popularly attributed to an increase in the "inner heat" of the body often due to dehydration. It is usually treated by the following.

1. applying a few drops of sesame oil or castor oil in the navel and the pelvic region

2. having an oil massage followed by a warm water bath

3. intake of fenugreek seeds soaked overnight in water

The problem has also been known to exist in other parts of South India and the methods of treatment are also similar.

Rarely, a sharply tilted uterus is due to a disease such as endometriosis, an infection or prior surgery. Although this may make it more challenging for the sperm to reach the egg, conception can still occur. A tipped uterus will usually right itself during the 10th to 12th week of pregnancy. Rarely (1 in 3000 to 8000 pregnancies) a tipped uterus will cause painful and difficult urination, and can cause severe urinary retention. Treatment for this condition (called "incarcerated uterus") includes manual anteversion of the uterus, and usually requires intermittent or continuous catheter drainage of the bladder until the problem is rectified or spontaneously resolves by the natural enlargement of the uterus, which brings it out of the tipped position. In addition to manual anteversion and bladder drainage, treatment of urinary retention due to retroverted uterus can require the use of a pessary, or even surgery, but often is as simple as having the pregnant mother sleep on her stomach for a day or two, to allow the retroverted uterus to move forward.

If a uterus does not right itself, it may be labeled "persistent".

Rhizomelia refers to either a disproportion of the length of the proximal limb, such as the shortened limbs of achondroplasia, or some other disorder of the hip or shoulder.

According to Stedman's medical dictionary "rhizomelic" means "relating to hip or shoulder joints", while "micromelic" means "having disproportionately short or small limbs".

Complications are likely to result in cases of excess blood loss or punctures to certain organs, possibly leading to shock. Swelling and bruising may result, more so in high-impact injuries. Pain in the affected areas may differ where severity of impact increases its likelihood and may radiate if symptoms are aggravated when one moves around.