Smoking is the most important risk factor for laryngeal cancer. Death from laryngeal cancer is 20 times more likely for heaviest smokers than for nonsmokers. Heavy chronic consumption of alcohol, particularly alcoholic spirits, is also significant. When combined, these two factors appear to have a synergistic effect.

Some other quoted risk factors are likely, in part, to be related to prolonged alcohol and tobacco consumption. These include low socioeconomic status, male sex, and age greater than 55 years.

People with a history of head and neck cancer are known to be at higher risk (about 25%) of developing a second cancer of the head, neck, or lung. This is mainly because in a significant proportion of these patients, the aerodigestive tract and lung epithelium have been exposed chronically to the carcinogenic effects of alcohol and tobacco. In this situation, a field change effect may occur, where the epithelial tissues start to become diffusely dysplastic with a reduced threshold for malignant change. This risk may be reduced by quitting alcohol and tobacco.

Some studies in Australia, Brazil and Germany pointed to alcohol-containing mouthwashes as also being potential causes. The claim was that constant exposure to these alcohol-containing rinses, even in the absence of smoking and drinking, leads to significant increases in the development of oral cancer. However, studies conducted in 1985, 1995, and 2003 summarize that alcohol-containing mouth rinses are not associated with oral cancer. In a March 2009 brief, the American Dental Association said "the available evidence does not support a connection between oral cancer and alcohol-containing mouthrinse". A 2008 study suggests that acetaldehyde (a breakdown product of alcohol) is implicated in oral cancer, but this study specifically focused on abusers of alcohol and made no reference to mouthwash. Any connection between oral cancer and mouthwash is tenuous without further investigation.

In a study of Europeans, smoking and other tobacco use was associated with about 75 percent of oral cancer cases, caused by irritation of the mucous membranes of the mouth from smoke and heat of cigarettes, cigars, and pipes. Tobacco contains over 60 known carcinogens, and the combustion of it, and by-products from this process, is the primary mode of involvement. Use of chewing tobacco or snuff causes irritation from direct contact with the mucous membranes.

Tobacco use in any form by itself, and even more so in combination with heavy alcohol consumption, continues to be an important risk factor for oral cancer. However, due to the current trends in the spread of HPV16, as of early 2011 the virus is now considered the primary causative factor in 63% of newly diagnosed patients.

This form of cancer is often seen in those who chew tobacco or use snuff orally, so much so that it is sometimes referred to as "Snuff dipper's cancer." Chewing betel nuts is an additional risk factor commonly seen in Taiwan.

Around 75% of cases are caused by alcohol and tobacco use.

Tobacco smoke is one of the main risk factors for head and neck cancer and one of the most carcinogenic compounds in tobacco smoke is acrylonitrile. (See Tobacco smoking). Acrylonitrile appears to indirectly cause DNA damage by increasing oxidative stress, leading to increased levels of 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) and formamidopyrimidine in DNA (see image). Both 8-oxo-dG and formamidopyrimidine are mutagenic. DNA glycosylase NEIL1 prevents mutagenesis by 8-oxo-dG and removes formamidopyrimidines from DNA.

However, cigarette smokers have a lifetime increased risk for head and neck cancers that is 5- to 25-fold increased over the general population.

The ex-smoker's risk for squamous cell cancer of the head and neck begins to approach the risk in the general population twenty years after smoking cessation. The high prevalence of tobacco and alcohol use worldwide and the high association of these cancers with these substances makes them ideal targets for enhanced cancer prevention.

Smokeless tobacco is cause of oral and pharyngeal cancers (oropharyngeal cancer). Cigar smoking is an important risk factor for oral cancers as well.

Other environmental carcinogens suspected of being potential causes of head and neck cancer include occupational exposures such as nickel refining, exposure to textile fibers, and woodworking. Use of marijuana, especially while younger, is linked to an increase in squamous-cell carcinoma cases while other studies suggest use is not shown to be associated with oral squamous cell carcinoma, or associated with decreased squamous cell carcinoma.

Excessive consumption of processed meats and red meat were associated with increased rates of cancer of the head and neck in one study, while consumption of raw and cooked vegetables seemed to be protective.

Vitamin E was not found to prevent the development of leukoplakia, the white plaques that are the precursor for carcinomas of the mucosal surfaces, in adult smokers.

Another study examined a combination of Vitamin E and beta carotene in smokers with early-stage cancer of the oropharynx, and found a worse prognosis in the vitamin users.

Prognosis and treatment is the same as for the most common type of ovarian cancer, which is epithelial ovarian cancer.

The median survival of primary peritoneal carcinomas is usually shorter by 2–6 months time when compared with serous ovarian cancer. Studies show median survival varies between 11.3–17.8 months. One study reported 19-40 month median survival (95% CI) with a 5-year survival of 26.5%.

Elevated albumin levels have been associated with a more favorable prognosis.

Human papillomavirus infection (HPV) has been associated with SCC of the oropharynx, lung, fingers and anogenital region.

When associated with the lung, it is typically a centrally located large cell cancer (non-small cell lung cancer or NSCLC). It often has a paraneoplastic syndrome causing ectopic production of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), resulting in hypercalcemia, however paraneoplastic syndrome is more commonly associated with small cell lung cancer.

It is primarily due to smoking.

Incidence is five in 100,000 (12,500 new cases per year) in the USA. The American Cancer Society estimated that 9,510 men and women (7,700 men and 1,810 women) would be diagnosed with and 3,740 men and women would die of laryngeal cancer in 2006.

Laryngeal cancer is listed as a "rare disease" by the Office of Rare Diseases (ORD) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). This means that laryngeal cancer affects fewer than 200,000 people in the U.S.

Verrucous carcinoma (VC) is an uncommon variant of squamous cell carcinoma. This form of cancer is often seen in those who chew tobacco or use snuff orally, so much so that it is sometimes referred to as "Snuff dipper's cancer."

Most patients with verrucous carcinoma have a good prognosis. Local recurrence is not uncommon, but metastasis to distant parts of the body is rare. Patients with oral verrucous carcinoma may be at greater risk of a second oral squamous cell carcinoma, for which the prognosis is worse.

Verrucous carcinoma may occur in various head and neck locations, as well as in the genitalia. The oral cavity is the most common site of this tumor. The ages range from 50 to 80 years with a male predominance and a median age of 67 years. VC may grow large in size, resulting in the destruction of adjacent tissue, such as bone and cartilage.

The diagnosis of VC is established by close communication between surgeons and pathologists.

Surgeons must provide adequate specimens including the full thickness of the tumors and adjacent uninvolved mucosa for correct diagnoses.

Surgery is considered as the treatment of choice, but the extent of surgical margin and the adjuvant radiotherapy are still controversial.

The major risk factors are cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption, while betel nut is an additional factor in Taiwan. Different gene mutation sites in head and neck cancer between western countries and Taiwan have been reported. The presentation of VC originated from exposure to different carcinogens may not be the same.

Although the precise causes are not known, a link with certain variants of BRCA1/2 has been described. Furthermore, women with BRCA1/2 mutation have a 5% risk of developing primary peritoneal cancer even after prophylactic oophorectomy.

Primary peritoneal carcinoma shows similar rates of tumor suppressor gene dysfunction (p53, BRCA, WT1) as ovarian cancer and can also show an increased expression of HER-2/neu.

An association with vascular endothelial growth factor has been observed.

Prognosis for nasopharyngeal angiofibroma is favorable. Because these tumors are benign, metastasis to distal sites does not occur. However, these tumors are highly vascularized and grow rapidly. Removal is important in preventing nasal obstruction and recurrent epistaxis. Mortality is not associated with nasopharyngeal angiofibroma.

The differential diagnosis of serous carcinoma not otherwise specified includes:

- Ovarian serous carcinoma, a type of ovarian cancer.

- Uterine serous carcinoma, also known as "uterine papillary serous carcinoma", a type of uterine cancer.

- Fallopian tube serous carcinoma, a type of uterine tube cancer.

- Cervical serous carcinoma, a rare type of cervical cancer.

- Primary peritoneal serous carcinoma, a very rare cancer that arise from the peritoneum.

There has been the suggestion that the above diagnoses really represent one entity.

Head and neck cancers are malignant neoplasms that arise in the head and region which comprises nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, oral cavity, salivary glands, pharynx, and larynx. Majority of head and neck cancers histologically belong to squamous cell type and hence they are categorized as Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (abbreviated as HNSCC)[Forastiere AA, 2003]. HNSCC are the 6th most common cancers worldwide and 3rd most common cancers in developing world. They account for ~ 5% of all malignancies worldwide (Ferlay J, 2010) and 3% of all malignancies in the United States (Siegel R, 2014).

Risk factors include tobacco consumption (chewing or smoking), alcohol consumption, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, human papilloma virus (HPV; esp. HPV 16, 18) infection, betel nut chewing, wood dust exposures, consumption of certain salted fish and others (NCI Factsheet, 2013). EBV infection has been specifically associated with nasopharyngeal cancer. Reverse smoking was considered as a risk factor for oral cancer. Interestingly, "Cis-retinoic acid" (i.e. supplements of retinoic acid) intake may increase the risk of HNSCC in active smokers. Low consumption of fruits and vegetables was associated with higher incidence of HNSCC.

HNSCC classification: Based on the HPV infection status, head and neck cancers are classified into HPV-positive and HPV-negative categories. So far, this is the only available molecular classification. Majority (>50%) of oral cancers are HPV-positive in the U.S. HPV-positive oral cancers are widely prevalent in younger patients and are associated with multiple sexual partners and oral sexual practices. HPV-positive cancers have better prognosis, especially for nonsmokers as compared to HPV-negative cancers.

Staging and grading of HNSCC: HNSCC are classified according to the tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) system of American Joint Committee on cancer. TNM staging system for HNSCC are discussed else where.

Symptoms include lump or sore, sore throat, hoarse of voice, difficulty in swallowing etc (NCI Factsheet, 2013).

Treatment for HNSCC is predominantly based on the stage of the disease. Factors such as patient fitness, baseline swallow, airway functional status, and others are considered before determining the treatment plan. Standard of care for HNSCC includes one or combination of the following: surgery, radiation, chemotherapeutic agents such as Cisplatin, 5-Flurouracil (5-FU) etc. Molecularly targeted therapies were developed since the discovery of role of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling in HNSCC development, progression and prognosis. These targeted therapies include monoclonal antibodies (such as cetuximab, panitumumab etc.) and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (such as erlotinib, gefitinib, etc.). Among these EGFR-targeting agents, only cetuximab has been approved by FDA in 2006 for HNSCC treatment.

Ninety percent (MacMillan, 2015) of cases of head and neck cancer (cancer of the mouth, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, throat and associated structures) are due to squamous cell carcinoma. Symptoms may include a poorly healing mouth ulcer, a hoarse voice or other persistent problems in the area. Treatment is usually with surgery (which may be extensive) and radiotherapy. Risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (Elad S, Zadik Y, Zeevi I, et al., 2010, pp. 1243–1244). In addition, recent studies show that about 25% of mouth and 35% of throat cancers are associated with HPV. The 5 year disease free survival rate for HPV positive cancer is significantly higher when appropriately treated with surgery, radiation and chemotherapy as compared to non-HPV positive cancer, substantiated by multiple studies including research conducted by Maura Gillison, "et al." of Johns Hopkins Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center.

In a Meta-analysis study to conglomerate findings regarding 28 published papers including 158 patients presenting SNUC following up with patients for an average of 14 months showed that at the time of last follow up 25% of patients were alive with no evidence of the disease, 22.4% were alive with presence of the disease, and 52.6% were deceased due to the disease.

In pathology, serous carcinoma is an epithelial malignancy (carcinoma) that arises from the lining of a cavity that produces a serum-like fluid (a serous cavity).

Serous lined cavities include the peritoneum, pericardium and pleural space and tunica vaginalis.

Radiation therapy has become the preferred treatment. Its advantage is that it treats the entire nasal cavity together with the affected bone and has shown the greatest improvement in survival. The radiation therapy is typically delivered in 10-18 treatment sessions over the course of 2–4 weeks.

Radiation therapy has a multitude of accompanying side effects and should be recommended on a case-by-case basis. Dogs in which nose bleeds are observed have an average life expectancy of 88 days. In instances where nosebleeds are not seen, the prognosis is slightly less grim. On average, a dog with nasal cancer has a life expectancy of 95 days.

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the lung is more common in men than in women. It is closely correlated with a history of tobacco smoking, more so than most other types of lung cancer. According to the Nurses' Health Study, the relative risk of SCC is approximately 5.5, both among those with a previous duration of smoking of 1 to 20 years, and those with 20 to 30 years, compared to never-smokers. The relative risk increases to approximately 16 with a previous smoking duration of 30 to 40 years, and approximately 22 with more than 40 years.

The most common type of cancers affecting the animal's nose are carcinomas and

sarcomas, both of which are locally invasive. The most common sites for metastasis are the lymph nodes and the lungs, but can also include other organs.

Roughly 10–35% of NSCLC patients will have drug sensitizing mutations of the "EGFR." The distribution of these mutations have been found to be race-dependent, with one study estimating that 10% of Caucasians but 50% of Asians will be found to have such tumor markers. A number of different EGFR mutations have been discovered, however certain aberrations will result in hyperactive forms of the protein. Patients with these mutations are more likely to have adenocarcinoma histology and be non-smokers or light smokers. These patients have been shown to be sensitized to certain medications which block the EGFR protein known as tyrosine kinase inhibitors specifically, erlotinib, gefitinib or afatinib.

Reliable identification of mutations in lung cancer needs careful consideration due to the variable sensitivity of diagnostic techniques

Sinonasal Undifferentiated Carcinoma (SNUC) is a rare and aggressive type of cancer originating in the epithelial layer of the nasal cavity or paranasal sinuses. It was first diagnosed in 1987. The aggressive nature of the cancer coupled with the advanced stage of disease upon presentation lead to a poor survival rate. Although the molecular nature of the mutation that causes SNUC is still poorly understood clinical treatment has shown that multimodality treatment has been the most successful option.

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is caused by a combination of factors: viral, environmental influences, and heredity. The viral influence is associated with infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). The Epstein-Barr virus is one of the most common viruses. 95 percent of all people in the U.S. are exposed to this virus by the time they are 30–40 years old. The World Health Organization does not have set preventative measures for this virus because it is so easily spread and is worldwide. Very rarely does Epstein-Barr virus lead to cancer, which suggests a variety of influencing factors. Other likely causes include genetic susceptibility, consumption of food (in particular salted fish) containing carcinogenic volatile nitrosamines. Various mutations that activate NF-κB signalling have been reported in almost half of NPC cases investigated.

The association between Epstein-Barr virus and nasopharyngeal carcinoma is unequivocal in World Health Organization (WHO) types II and III tumors but less well-established for WHO type I (WHO-I) NPC, where preliminary evaluation has suggested that human papillomavirus HPV may be associated. EBV DNA was detectable in the blood plasma samples of 96% of patients with non-keratinizing NPC, compared with only 7% in controls. The detection of nuclear antigen associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBNA) and viral DNA in NPC type 2 and 3, has revealed that EBV can infect epithelial cells and is associated with their transformation. The cause of NPC (particularly the endemic form) seems to follow a multi-step process, in which EBV, ethnic background, and environmental carcinogens all seem to play an important role. More importantly, EBV DNA levels appear to correlate with treatment response and may predict disease recurrence, suggesting that they may be an independent indicator of prognosis. The mechanism by which EBV alters nasopharyngeal cells is being elucidated to provide a rational therapeutic target.

Alcohol is a risk factor for breast cancer in women.

A woman drinking an average of two units of alcohol per day has an 8% higher risk of developing breast cancer than a woman who drinks an average of one unit of alcohol per day. A study concluded that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the incidence of breast cancer increases by 11 per 1000. Approximately 6% (between 3.2% and 8.8%) of breast cancers reported in the UK each year could be prevented if drinking was reduced to a very low level (i.e. less than 1 unit/week). Moderate to heavy consumption of alcoholic beverages (at least three to four drinks per week) is associated with a 1.3-fold increased risk of the recurrence of breast cancer. Further, consumption of alcohol at any quantity is associated with significantly increased risk of relapse in breast cancer survivors.

Nasopharynx cancer as of 2010 resulted in 65,000 deaths globally up from 45,000 in 1990.

NPC is uncommon in the United States and most other nations, representing less than 1 case per 100,000 in most populations. but is extremely common in southern regions of China, particularly in Guangdong, accounting for 18% of all cancers in China. It is sometimes referred to as "Cantonese cancer" because it occurs in about 25 cases per 100,000 people in this region, 25 times higher than the rest of the world. It is also quite common in Taiwan. This could be due to the South East Asian diet which typically includes consumption of salted vegetables, fish and meat. While NPC is seen primarily in middle-aged persons in Asia, a high proportion of African cases appear in children. The cause of increased risk for NPC in these endemic regions is not clear. In low-risk populations, such as in the United States, a bimodal peak is observed. The first peak occurs in late adolescence/early adulthood (ages 15–24 years), followed by a second peak later in life (ages 65–79 years).