Choice of treatment is largely dictated by the clinical situation. A ruptured interstitial pregnancy is a medical emergency that requires an immediate surgical intervention either by laparoscopy or laparotomy to stop the bleeding and remove the pregnancy.

Surgical methods to remove the pregnancy include cornual evacuation, incision of the cornua with removal of the pregnancy (cornuostomy), resection of the cornual area or a cornual wedge resection, typically combined with an ipsilateral salpingectomy, and hysterectomy. Because of the vascularity of the interstitial region particularly during pregnancy, blood loss during surgery may be substantial. Postoperatively, patients with conservative surgical therapy are at risk for development of a persistent ectopic pregnancy due to the presence of deeply embedded surviving trophoblastic tissue; thus, monitoring of hCG levels is indicated until they become undetectable.

In patients with an asymptomatic interstitial pregnancy methotrexate has been successfully used, however, this approach may fail and result in cornual rupture of the pregnancy. Selective uterine artery embolization has been successfully performed to treat interstial pregnancies.

Treatment depends on diagnosis and may include hormonal therapy, iv fluids, blood transfusion, and/or a dilation and curettage. Internal bleeding requires laparoscopy or abdominal surgery, in rare and extreme cases a hysterectomy is performed.

Treatment may be delivery by caesarean section and abdominal hysterectomy if placenta accreta is diagnosed before birth. Oxytocin and antibiotics are used for post-surgical management. When there is partially separated placenta with focal accreta, best option is removal of placenta. If it is important to save the woman's uterus (for future pregnancies) then resection around the placenta may be successful. Conservative treatment can also be uterus sparing but may not be as successful and has a higher risk of complications.

Techniques include:

- Leaving the placenta in the uterus and curettage of uterus. Methotrexate has been used in this case.

- Intrauterine balloon catheterisation to compress blood vessels

- Embolisation of pelvic vessels

- Internal iliac artery ligation

- Bilateral uterine artery ligation

In cases where there is invasion of placental tissue and blood vessels into the bladder, it is treated in similar manner to abdominal pregnancy and manual placental removal is avoided. However, this may eventually need hysterectomy and/or partial cystectomy.

If the patient decides to proceed with a vaginal delivery, blood products for transfusion and an anesthesiologist are kept ready at delivery.

The uterus should be evacuated and contractions should be stimulated using intravenous oxytocin; hysterectomy (the removal of the uterus) may be needed in some cases.

Patients with an ectopic pregnancy are generally at higher risk for a recurrence, however, there are no specific data for patients with an interstitial pregnancy. When a new pregnancy is diagnosed it is important to monitor the pregnancy by transvaginal sonography to assure that is it properly located, and that the surgically repaired area remains intact. Cesarean delivery is recommended to avoid uterine rupture during labor.

Intravenous oxytocin is the drug of choice for postpartum hemorrhage. Ergotamine may also be used.

Oxytocin helps the uterus to contract quickly and the contractions to last for longer. It is the first line treatment for PPH when its cause is the uterus not contracting well. A combination of syntocinon and ergometrine is commonly used as part of active management of the third stage of labour. This is called syntometrine. Syntocinon alone lowers the risk of PPH. Based on limited research available it is unclear whether syntocinon or syntometrine is most effective in preventing PPH but adverse effects are worse with syntometrine making syntocinon a more attractive option. Ergometrine also has to be kept cool and in a dark place so that it is safe to use. It does reduce the risk of PPH by improving the tone of the uterus when compared with no treatment however it has to be used with caution due to its effect raising blood pressure and causing worse after pains.

More research would be useful in determining the best doses of ergometrine, and syntocinon.

The difficulty using oxytocin is that it needs to be kept below a certain temperature which requires resources such as fridges which are not always available particularly in low-resourced settings. When oxytocin is not available, misoprostol can be used. Misoprostol does not need to be kept at a certain temperature and research into its effectiveness in reducing blood loss appears promising when compared with a placebo in a setting where it is not appropriate to use oxytocin. Misoprostol can cause unpleasant side effects such as very high body temperatures and shivering. Lower doses of misoprostol appear to be safer and cause less side effects.

Giving oxytocin in a solution of saline into the umbilical vein is a method of administering the drugs directly to the placental bed and uterus. However quality of evidence around this technique is poor and it is not recommended for routine use in the management of the third stage. More research is needed to ascertain whether this is an effective way of administering uterotonic drugs. As a way of treating a retained placenta, this method is not harmful but has not been shown to be effective.

Carbetocin compared with oxytocin produced a reduction in women who needed uterine massage and further uterotonic drugs for women having caesarean sections. There was no difference in rates of PPH in women having caesarean sections or women having vaginal deliveries when given carbetocin. Carbetocin appears to cause less adverse effects. More research is needed to find the cost effectiveness of using carbetocin.

Tranexamic acid, a medication to promote blood clotting, may also be used to reduce bleeding and blood transfusions in low-risk women, however evidence as of 2015 was not strong. A 2017 trial found that it decreased the risk of death from bleeding from 1.9% to 1.5% in women with postpartum bleeding. The benefit was greater when the medication was given within three hours.

In some countries, such as Japan, methylergometrine and other herbal remedies are given following the delivery of the placenta to prevent severe bleeding more than a day after the birth. However, there is not enough evidence to suggest that these methods are effective.

Gynecologic hemorrhage needs to be evaluated as soon as possible by a physician. The amount and duration of bleeding will dictate whether a bleeding event is an emergency event.

Uterine massage is a simple first line treatment as it helps the uterus to contract to reduce bleeding. Although the evidence around the effectiveness of uterine massage is inconclusive, it is common practice after the delivery of the placenta.

Ideally the management of abdominal pregnancy should be done by a team that has medical personnel from multiple specialties. Potential treatments consist of surgery with termination of the pregnancy (removal of the fetus) via laparoscopy or laparotomy, use of methotrexate, embolization, and combinations of these. Sapuri and Klufio indicate that conservative treatment is also possible if the following criteria are met: 1. there are no major congenital malformations; 2. the fetus is alive; 3. there is continuous hospitalization in a well-equipped and well-staffed maternity unit which has immediate blood transfusion facilities; 4. there is careful monitoring of maternal and fetal well being; and 5. placental implantation is in the lower abdomen away from the liver and spleen. The choice is largely dictated by the clinical situation. Generally, treatment is indicated when the diagnosis is made; however, the situation of the advanced abdominal pregnancy is more complicated.

Early treatment of an ectopic pregnancy with methotrexate is a viable alternative to surgical treatment which was developed in the 1980s. If administered early in the pregnancy, methotrexate terminates the growth of the developing embryo; this may cause an abortion, or the developing embryo may then be either resorbed by the woman's body or pass with a menstrual period. Contraindications include liver, kidney, or blood disease, as well as an ectopic embryonic mass > 3.5 cm.

Also, it may lead to the inadvertent termination of an undetected intrauterine pregnancy, or severe abnormality in any surviving pregnancy. Therefore, it is recommended that methotrexate should only be administered when hCG has been serially monitored with a rise less than 35% over 48 hours, which practically excludes a viable intrauterine pregnancy.

The first step in management of uterine atony is uterine massage. The next step is pharmacological therapies, the first of which is oxytocin, used because it initiates rhythmic contractions of the uterus, compressing the spiral arteries which should reduce bleeding. The next step in the pharmacological management is the use of methylergometrine, which is an ergot derivative, much like that use in the abortive treatment of migraines. Its side effect of hypertension means its use should not be used in those with hypertension or pre-eclampsia. In those with hypertension, the use of prostaglandin F is indicated (but beware of its use in patients with asthma).

Another option Carbetocin and Carboprost where Oxytocin and ergometrin is inappropriate.

Emergency exploratory laparotomy with cesarean delivery accompanied by fluid and blood transfusion are indicated for the management of uterine rupture. Depending on the nature of the rupture and the condition of the patient, the uterus may be either repaired or removed (cesarean hysterectomy). Delay in management places both mother and child at significant risk.

Severe acute bleeding, such as caused by ectopic pregnancy and post-partum hemorrhage, leads to hypovolemia (the depletion of blood from the circulation), progressing to shock. This is a medical emergency and requires hospital attendance and intravenous fluids, usually followed by blood transfusion. Once the circulating volume has been restored, investigations are performed to identify the source of bleeding and address it. Uncontrolled life-threatening bleeding may require uterine artery embolization (occlusion of the blood vessels supplying the uterus), laparotomy (surgical opening of the abdomen), occasionally leading to hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) as a last resort.

A possible complication from protracted vaginal blood loss is iron deficiency anemia, which can develop insidiously. Eliminating the cause will resolve the anemia, although some women require iron supplements or blood transfusions to improve the anemia.

If bleeding has already occurred, surgical intervention may be necessary. However, whether to pursue surgical intervention is an often difficult decision in a stable patient with minimal evidence of blood clot on ultrasound.

Surgeons use laparoscopy or laparotomy to gain access to the pelvis and can either incise the affected Fallopian and remove only the pregnancy (salpingostomy) or remove the affected tube with the pregnancy (salpingectomy). The first successful surgery for an ectopic pregnancy was performed by Robert Lawson Tait in 1883. It is estimated that an acceptable rate of PULs that eventually undergo surgery is between 0.5 and 11%.

Autotransfusion of a woman's own blood as drained during surgery may be useful in those who have a lot of bleeding into their abdomen.

Published reports that a re-implanted embryo survived to birth were debunked as false.

There is no effective pharmacological treatment for retained placenta. It is useful ensuring the bladder is empty. However, ergometrine should not be given as it causes tonic uterine contractions which may delay placental expulsion. Controlled cord traction has been recommended as a second alternative after more than 30 minutes have passed after stimulation of uterine contractions, provided the uterus is contracted. Manual extraction may be required if cord traction also fails, or if heavy ongoing bleeding occurs. Very rarely a curettage is necessary to ensure that no remnants of the placenta remain (in rare conditions with very adherent placenta such as a placenta accreta).

However, in birth centers and attended home birth environments, it is common for licensed care providers to wait for the placenta's birth up to 2 hours in some instances.

Treatment depends on the type of ovary apoplexy and the severity of intra-abdominal bleeding, but the condition must be treated in a hospital. In the case of pain without signs of intraabdominal bleeding, conservative therapy may be initiated, which includes bed rest, antispasmodics, and physiotherapy. In the presence or suspected internal bleeding, surgery is indicated via laparoscopy or laparotomy. Other treatments may include efforts to stop the bleeding or resection of the affected portion of the ovary. However, in cases in which there is extensive damage to the ovary, it may be necessary to remove it.

After being discharged from the hospital, it is important to take steps to prevent a recurrence in the future. Such steps include avoiding risk factors or beginning a regimen of oral contraceptives to control ovarian activity.

The fetus may be compromised if there is prolonged delivery because of the non-contractile uterus; severe bleeding may cause hypovolemic shock in the mother.

Fertility may sometimes be restored by removal of adhesions, depending on the severity of the initial trauma and other individual patient factors. Operative hysteroscopy is used for visual inspection of the uterine cavity during adhesion dissection (adhesiolysis). However, hysteroscopy is yet to become a routine gynaecological procedure and only 15% of US gynecologists perform office hysteroscopy {Isaacson, 2002}. Adhesion dissection can be technically difficult and must be performed with care in order to not create new scars and further exacerbate the condition. In more severe cases, adjunctive measures such as laparoscopy are used in conjunction with hysteroscopy as a protective measure against uterine perforation. Microscissors are usually used to cut adhesions. Electrocauterization is not recommended.

As IUA frequently reform after surgery, techniques have been developed to prevent recurrence of adhesions. Methods to prevent adhesion reformation include the use of mechanical barriers (Foley catheter, saline-filled Cook Medical Balloon Uterine Stent, IUCD) and gel barriers (Seprafilm, Spraygel, autocrosslinked hyaluronic acid gel Hyalobarrier) to maintain opposing walls apart during healing {Tsapanos, 2002}; {Guida, 2004};{Abbott, 2004}, thereby preventing the reformation of adhesions. Antibiotic prophylaxis is necessary in the presence of mechanical barriers to reduce the risk of possible infections. A common pharmacological method for preventing reformation of adhesions is sequential hormonal therapy with estrogen followed by a progestin to stimulate endometrial growth and prevent opposing walls from fusing together {Roge, 1996}. However, there have been no randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing post-surgical adhesion reformation with and without hormonal treatment and the ideal dosing regimen or length of estrogen therapy is not known. The absence of prospective RCTs comparing treatment methods makes it difficult to recommend optimal treatment protocols. Furthermore, diagnostic severity and outcomes are assessed according to different criteria (e.g. menstrual pattern, adhesion reformation rate, conception rate, live birth rate). Clearly, more comparable studies are needed in which reproductive outcome can be analysed systematically.

Follow-up tests (HSG, hysteroscopy or SHG) are necessary to ensure that adhesions have not reformed. Further surgery may be necessary to restore a normal uterine cavity.

According to a recent study among 61 patients, the overall rate of adhesion recurrence was 27.9% and in severe cases this was 41.9%. Another study found that postoperative adhesions reoccur in close to 50% of severe AS and in 21.6% of moederate cases. Mild IUA, unlike moderate to severe synechiae, do not appear to reform.

Principles of management are to treat the shock and replace the uterus. The patient should be moved rapidly to the OR to facilitate anesthesia monitoring during this procedure. Usually this complication is only recognized after delivery of the placenta, wherein pitocin has already been started, which just exacerbates the problem. The uterus clamps down around the inversion making it very difficult to perform a replacement. This is a true obstetrical emergency, so extra doctors, nurses, anesthesiologists should be summoned to the room to assist. The pitocin should be turned off immediately. Giving tocolytics such as terbutaline or magnesium sulfate have a lower success rate. Halothane and Nitroglycerine (100mcg to 200 mcg intravenously) have a higher success rate.

Once you have achieved uterine relaxation, place your fist into the vagina. Find the biggest part of the inversion and push with your fist cephalward to replace the uterus. This takes firm steady force, so keep your fist in the vagina if you need to rest your hand. Then continue more force toward the fundus to replace the uterus. You can use your left hand on the outside of the abdomen to help you feel where the fundus should be replaced. This helps guide the angle of your fist in replacing the uterus. Once it is replaced, give the patient Misoprostol 1000 mcgs rectally to help with increasing uterine tone. Other medications such as Methergine and Hemabate can be used. If you have heavy bleeding, consider inserting a Bakri balloon into the uterine cavity to tamponade the bleeding.

These patients have usually sustained heavy blood loss, and should be monitored in the ICU postoperatively. If you have given nitroglycerine, they must have cardiac monitoring postoperatively.

Other personnel should be monitoring vital signs, ordering blood products, assisting the anesthesiologist, drawing labs, and stabilizing the patient. Remember that nitroglycerine can cause hypotension, which can be reversed with ephedrine.

If external replacement fails, a laparotomy may be required, in which the uterus is gently pulled the right way round using forceps.

Treatment depends on the amount of blood loss and the status of the fetus. If the fetus is less than 36 weeks and neither mother or fetus is in any distress, then they may simply be monitored in hospital until a change in condition or fetal maturity whichever comes first.

Immediate delivery of the fetus may be indicated if the fetus is mature or if the fetus or mother is in distress. Blood volume replacement to maintain blood pressure and blood plasma replacement to maintain fibrinogen levels may be needed. Vaginal birth is usually preferred over Caesarean section unless there is fetal distress. Caesarean section is contraindicated in cases of disseminated intravascular coagulation. People should be monitored for 7 days for postpartum hemorrhage. Excessive bleeding from uterus may necessitate hysterectomy. The mother may be given Rhogam if she is Rh negative.

In postmenopausal bleeding, guidelines from the United States consider transvaginal ultrasonography to be an appropriate first-line procedure to identify which women are at higher risk of endometrial cancer. A cut-off threshold of 3 mm or less of endometrial thickness should be used for in women with postmenopausal bleeding in the following cases:

- Not having used hormone replacement therapy for a year or more

- Usage of continuous hormone replacement therapy consisting of both an estrogen and a progestagen

A cut-off threshold of 5 mm or less should be used for women on sequential hormone replacement therapy consisting both of an estrogen and a progestagen.

It the endometrial thickness equals the cut-off threshold or is thinner, and the ultrasonography is otherwise reassuring, no further action need be taken. Further investigations should be carried out if symptoms recur.

If the ultrasonography is not reassuring, hysteroscopy and endometrial biopsy should be performed. The biopsy may be obtained either by curettage at the same time as inpatient or outpatient hysteroscopy, or by using an endometrium sampling device such as a pipelle which can practically be done directly after the ultrasonography.

A number of medications may be used to control symptoms. NSAIDs can be used to reduce painful menstrual periods. Oral contraceptive pills may be prescribed to reduce uterine bleeding and cramps. Anemia may be treated with iron supplementation.

Levonorgestrel intrauterine devices are effective in limiting menstrual blood flow and improving other symptoms. Side effects are typically few as the levonorgestrel (a progestin) is released in low concentration locally. While most levongestrel-IUD studies concentrated on treatment of women without fibroids a few reported good results specifically for women with fibroids including a substantial regression of fibroids.

Cabergoline in a moderate and well-tolerated dose has been shown in two studies to shrink fibroids effectively. The mechanism of action responsible for how cabergoline shrinks fibroids is unclear.

Ulipristal acetate is a synthetic selective progesterone receptor modulator (SPRM) that has tentative evidence to support its use for presurgical treatment of fibroids with low side-effects. Long-term UPA-treated fibroids have shown volume reduction of about 70%. In some cases UPA alone is used to relieve symptoms without surgery.

Danazol is an effective treatment to shrink fibroids and control symptoms. Its use is limited by unpleasant side effects. Mechanism of action is thought to be antiestrogenic effects. Recent experience indicates that safety and side effect profile can be improved by more cautious dosing.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs cause temporary regression of fibroids by decreasing estrogen levels. Because of the limitations and side effects of this medication, it is rarely recommended other than for preoperative use to shrink the size of the fibroids and uterus before surgery. It is typically used for a maximum of 6 months or less because after longer use they could cause osteoporosis and other typically postmenopausal complications. The main side effects are transient postmenopausal symptoms. In many cases the fibroids will regrow after cessation of treatment, however, significant benefits may persist for much longer in some cases. Several variations are possible, such as GnRH agonists with add-back regimens intended to decrease the adverse effects of estrogen deficiency. Several add-back regimes are possible, tibolone, raloxifene, progestogens alone, estrogen alone, and combined estrogens and progestogens.

Progesterone antagonists such as mifepristone have been tested, there is evidence that it relieves some symptoms and improves quality of life but because of adverse histological changes that have been observed in several trials it can not be currently recommended outside of research setting. Fibroid growth has recurred after antiprogestin treatment was stopped.

Aromatase inhibitors have been used experimentally to reduce fibroids. The effect is believed to be due partially by lowering systemic estrogen levels and partially by inhibiting locally overexpressed aromatase in fibroids. However, fibroid growth has recurred after treatment was stopped. Experience from experimental aromatase inhibitor treatment of endometriosis indicates that aromatase inhibitors might be particularly useful in combination with a progestogenic ovulation inhibitor.

The most important aspect of treatment of pyometra is quick action to provide supportive care. Female dogs are often septic and in shock (see septic shock). Intravenous fluids and antibiotics should be given immediately. Once the female dog has been stabilized, then the treatment of choice is an emergency spay. In livestock the treatment of choice for minor cases is Dinopost Tremethamine (Lutalyse). Supportive antibiotic treatment may be recommended also. Severe cases require surgery.

Spaying (ovariohysterectomy) completely and promptly removes the infection, prevents uterine rupture and peritonitis, and of course prevents recurrence, in most cases. Spayed animals do very rarely develop pyometra in the uterine stump. Even so, ovariohysterectomy is currently considered the most effective and safest treatment.

True cervical pregnancies tend to abort; if, however, the pregnancy is located higher in the canal and the placenta finds support in the uterine cavity it can go past the first trimester. With the placenta being implanted abnormally extensive vaginal bleeding can be expected at time of delivery and placental removal. While early cervical pregnancies may abort spontaneously or can be managed with excision, D&C, suturing, electrocautery, and tamponading, by medication such as methotrexate, and/or by uterine artery embolization, a more advanced pregnancy may require a hysterectomy to control bleeding. The more advanced the pregnancy the higher the risk for a major bleeding necessitating a hysterectomy.

On a very rare occasion, a cervical pregnancy results in the birth of a live baby, typically the pregnancy is in the upper part of the cervical canal and manages to extend into the lower part of the uterine cavity.

A cervical pregnancy can develop together with a normal intrauterine pregnancy; such a heterotopic pregnancy will call for expert management as to not to endanger the intrauterine pregnancy.