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Management of Bleeding Canker of Chestnut is not definitive and treatments are currently being investigated. Because the pathogen can be spread by contaminated tools, cultural practices are important to management. Tools should be cleaned and used with caution after being used on infected trees. Recovery of trees is possible, so management strategies are focused on keeping trees healthy so they can recover. One recommendation is to add fertilizer that contains Potassium phosphate. Soil de-compaction, providing good drainage, and mulching to minimize fluctuation of soil temperature and moisture are all ways to improve or maintain tree health and to manage the pathogen.
Chemical methods can be used to help the tree maintain health and avoid progress of the disease. Management strategies are currently being developed. A study performed in 2015 examined the infection on trees and found that 41 F1 progeny parent tree source had the most promising lines of viability for resistance.
There are many strategies to cultural management. Establishment of new trees that are disease free by trying to plant trees as soon as they are received from the nursery to reduce the amount of stress the tree undergoes to reduce the amount of dead tissue. Apply insecticides to prevent insects such as, peach tree borer to prevent disease causing conidia from entering wounded parts of the tree that the insects create. Prune trees appropriately and at the correct time when buds start to break to promote wide angled branching. Infection at pruning sites is less common when done during late spring because of the smaller amount of inoculum present at this time. Inspect trees occasionally and removed any dead branches to prevent infection at these sites. Training trees properly also helps foster decreased amount of disease. Training trees during the first season to have branches develop wide crotch angles to sustain long orchard life. Avoid excessive and late fertilization during cold season to avoid low temperature injury. Fertilize trees during the early spring to prevent cold-susceptible growth.
Thousand cankers disease can be spread by moving infected black walnut wood. Trees intended for shipment should be inspected for dieback and cankers and galleries after harvest. G. morbidia or the walnut twig beetle ("Pityophthorus juglandis") are not currently known to be moved with walnut seed . There is currently no chemical therapy or prevention available for the disease making it difficult to control the spread of the disease from the west to the eastern united states. Wood from infected trees can still be used for commercial value, but safety measures such as removing the bark, phloem, and cambium to reduce the risk of spreading the disease with shipment. Quarantines have been put in place in some states to reduce the potential movement of fungus or beetle from that region. On May 17th, 2010, the Director of the Michigan Department of Agriculture issued a quarantine from affected states to protect Michigan’s black walnut ecology and production. Contacting the appropriate entities about possible infections is important to stopping or slowing the spread of thousand cankers disease.
Plant varieties that are resistant to "Armillaria" or species are resistant to other environmental or biological stressors. If the infected area has been cleared of trees, plants that are not vulnerable to the disease should be planted for five or so years until "Armillaria" is eradicated. Stump removal is also an effective management tool but can be expensive. Another way to reduce susceptibility is to maintain plant health by regular fertilization (if needed), watering during droughts, and trying not to create wounds on the plant. Fumigation can also be used to reduce the amount of inoculum.
Control of Leucostoma Canker is possible through a combination of pest and crop management techniques following life cycles of the trees. The strategy is implemented following techniques aimed at reducing number of pathogenic inoculum, minimizing dead or injured tissues to prevent infection, and improving tree health to improve rapid wound healing. Chemical controls have not been very effective at controlling this disease with no fungicides registered specifically for control of "Leucostoma" spp., and demethylation-inhibiting (DMI) fungicides having almost no effect on "L. persoonii".
There are a few controls for beech bark disease. One important management strategy is prohibiting the movement of nursery stock or other materials that may harbor the beech scale insect. Insecticides, generally not applied under forest conditions, are primarily used on high-value ornamental trees. The use of other organisms as controls is also a possibility. The ladybird beetle is a beetle that preys on the beech scale insect. A fungus that parasitizes the "Neonectria" fungus could also be employed. The problem with using these organisms to control beech bark disease is that their impact on the disease has not been evaluated extensively. In a forest setting, controlling the beech bark disease is too costly. Timely salvage cutting can reduce economic losses of beech in a forest. In stands where beech bark disease is established, silvicultural best practice is to retain large overstory trees which show visual resistance (no scale, cankers or fungus), remove heavily infested/dying trees and then treat sprouts from infested trees with herbicides. The residual, resistant parent trees are future sources of resistant seed/sprouts. Resistance to beech bark disease in a stand may be 1%-5% of trees or more, with significant regional variation. A study of 35 sites in three Canadian provinces found resistance rates ranging from 2.2%-5.7%.
The genus Geosmithia (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) are generally saprophytic fungi affecting hardwoods. As of its identification in 2010, the species G. morbida is the first documented as a plant pathogen. The walnut twig beetle ("Pityophthorus juglandis") carries the mycelium and conidia of the fungus as it burrows into the tree. The beetle is currently only found in warmer climates, allowing for transmission of the fungus throughout the year. Generations of the beetle move to and from black walnut trees carrying the fungus as they create galleries, the adults typically moving horizontally, and the larvae moving vertically with the grain. As they move through the wood, the beetles deposit the fungus, which is then introduced into the phloem; cankers then develop around the galleries, quickly girdling the tree. The fungus has not been found to provide any value to the beetle. A study done by Montecchio and Faccoli in Italy in 2014 found that no fungal fruiting bodies were found around or on the cankers but in the galleries. Mycelium, and sometimes conidiophores and conidia were observed in the galleries as well. No sexual stage of the fungus has currently been found.
The use of antifungals and heat-induced therapy has been suggested as a treatment of "B. dendrobatidis." " "However, some of these antifungals may cause adverse skin effects on certain species of frogs. And although we do use them to treat species that are infected by chytridiomycosis, the infection never fully eradicates. A study done by Rollins-Smith and colleagues suggests that itraconazole is the antifungal of choice when it comes to treatment of "Bd." This is favored in comparison to amphotericin B and chloramphenicol because of their toxicity, specifically chloramphenicol as it is correlated with leukemia in toads. This becomes a difficult situation because without treatment, frogs will suffer from limb deformities and even death, but may also suffer skin abnormalities with treatment. Treatment of chytridiomycosis isn’t always successful, and some frogs are not able to handle the treatment process. It is important to consult with a veterinarian before treating frogs that suffer from chytridiomycosis"."
Individuals infected with "B. dendrobatidis" are bathed in intraconazole solutions, and within a few weeks, previously infected individuals test negative for "B. dendrobatidis" using PCR assays. Heat therapy is also used to neutralize "B. dendrobatidis" in infected individuals. Temperature-controlled laboratory experiments are used to increase the temperature of an individual past the optimal temperature range of "B. dendrobatidis". Experiments, where the temperature is increased beyond the upper bound of the "B. dendrobatidis" optimal range of 25 to 30 °C, show its presence will dissipate within a few weeks and individuals infected return to normal. Formalin/malachite green has also been used to successfully treat individuals infected with chytridiomycosis. An Archey's frog was successfully cured of chytridiomycosis by applying chloramphenicol topically. However, the potential risks of using antifungal drugs on individuals are high.
"W. carpophilus" can remain viable for several months and spores are often airborne. Since the fungi thrive in wet conditions, overhead watering should be avoided. Remove and dispose of any infected buds, leaves, fruit and twigs. In fall, fixed copper or Bordeaux mixture can be applied.
In Ghana, a study that combined the sanitation and fungicide application showed a significant reduction in the percentage of disease incidence, where greater black pod incident were observed from pods on the trunk than the canopy in control treatment (no fungicide application). This suggested that the application of fungicide on the trunk would protect pods from infection, therefore reduce primary and secondary infection rate, both on the trunk and in the canopy. In addition, the application of systemic (potassium phosphonate) with one and double injection (20 ml and 40 ml of fungicide for each injection frequency), and semi-systemic (metalaxyl) fungicide showed better control compared to contact fungicides (copper based fungicide) in both locations that were used in the experiment.
Armillaria root rot is a fungal root rot caused by several different members of the genus "Armillaria". The symptoms are variable depending on the host infected, ranging from stunted leaves to chlorotic needles and dieback of twigs and branches. However, all infected hosts display symptoms characteristic of being infected by a white rotting fungus. The most effective ways of management focus on limiting the spread of the fungus, planting resistant species, and removing infected material. This disease poses a threat to the lumber industry as well as affecting recreational areas.
Beech bark disease is a disease that causes mortality and defects in beech trees in the eastern United States and Europe. In North America, the disease occurs after extensive bark invasion by the beech scale insect, "Cryptococcus fagisuga". Through a presently unknown mechanism, excessive feeding by this insect causes two different fungi ("Neonectria faginata" (previously "Nectria coccinea var. faginata") and "Neonectria ditissima" (previously "Nectria galligena")) to produce annual cankers on the bark of the tree. The continuous formation of lesions around the tree eventually girdles it, resulting in canopy death. In Europe, "N. coccinea" is the primary fungus causing the infection. Infection in European trees occurs in the same manner as it does in North American trees. Though the disease still appears in Europe, it is less serious today than it once was.
The application of copper fungicide has been shown to significantly reduce a great number of black pod incidences in Nigeria. Metalaxyl (Ridomil) and cuprous oxide (Perenox) were identified to be successful in increasing the number of harvested healthy pod compared to the application of fosetyl aluminium (Aliete) and control treatment. On top of that, the timing of fungicide application has some positive effect on the final pod yield where this plot produced greater yield than the unsprayed plot. The application was done before August, which is before the main disease epidemic that usually occurs in September and October.
The recommended standard for fungicide application to control black pod disease caused by "P. megakarya" for a season is 6 to 8 times of application in every 3–4 weeks. However, the adoption of recommended application was very low among farmers in Ghana. Therefore, an experiment with a reduced number of fungicide applications demonstrated that there was 25 to 45% reduction in disease incidence. In terms of disease control and yields, sanitation and three applications of Ridomil 72 plus (12% metalaxyl + 60% copper-1-oxide) fungicide showed a better control compared to sanitation alone and sanitation with one or two fungicide applications. However, reduced in fungicide application was shown to be significantly less effective than the recommended standard fungicide application.
It was suggested that the understanding regarding the source of inoculum, the amount of infective inoculum production and how the disease is disseminated is important in order to identify the appropriate and economical method in fungicide application as well as for an effective control of the disease. For example, the application of fungicide on the trunk will help farmers to control the spread of the disease up in the canopy, as it is difficult to reach the canopy during fungicide application. This will eventually save more time, labor and cost for disease management.
Shot hole disease (also called Coryneum blight) is a serious fungal disease that creates BB-sized holes in leaves, rough areas on fruit, and concentric lesions on branches. The pathogen that causes shot hole disease is "Wilsonomyces carpophilus".
Bleeding canker of horse chestnut is a common canker of horse chestnut trees ("Aesculus hippocastanum", also known as conker trees) that is known to be caused by infection with several different pathogens.
Infections by the gram-negative fluorescent bacterium "Pseudomonas syringae" pathovar "aesculi" are a new phenomenon, and have caused most of the bleeding cankers on horse chestnut that are now frequently seen in Britain.
The hypothesis that pesticide use has contributed to declining amphibian populations has been suggested several times in the literature. Interactions between pesticides and chytridiomycosis were examined in 2007, and sublethal exposure to the pesticide carbaryl (a cholinesterase inhibitor) was shown to increase susceptibility of foothill yellow-legged frogs ("Rana boylii") to chytridiomycosis. In particular, the skin peptide defenses were significantly reduced after exposure to carbaryl, suggesting pesticides may inhibit this innate immune defence, and increase susceptibility to disease.
Canker and anthracnose generally refer to many different plant diseases of such broadly similar symptoms as the appearance of small areas of dead tissue, which grow slowly, often over years. Some are of only minor consequence, but others are ultimately lethal and therefore of major economic importance in agriculture and horticulture. Their causes include such a wide range of organisms as fungi, bacteria, mycoplasmas and viruses. The majority of canker-causing organisms are bound to a unique host species or genus, but a few will attack other plants. Weather and animals can spread canker, thereby endangering areas that have only slight amount of canker.
Although fungicides or bactericides can treat some cankers, often the only available treatment is to destroy the infected plant to contain the disease.
It has been observed in spiny lobsters ("Panulirus ornatus") in Vietnam, where it is caused by a species of "Fusarium".
It has been observed in shrimp, where the agent is microscopic protozoan "Hyalophysa chattoni" or a close relative, in Galveston Bay, Texas and other locations.
With extra care taken to the health of the shrimp, it is possible to prevent cases of black gill disease. The water should have 10-20 parts per thousand parts salinity and filtered.
People who have been bitten by a black widow spider are recommended to seek professional medical assistance for symptoms. Symptoms self-resolve in hours to days in a majority of bites without medical intervention.
Medical treatments have varied over the years. Some treatments (e.g. calcium gluconate) have been discovered to be useless. Currently, treatment usually involves symptomatic therapy with pain medication, muscle relaxants, and antivenom. When the pain becomes unbearable, antivenom is administered. Antivenom historically completely resolves pain in a short time. Antivenom is made by injecting horses with latrodectus venom over a period of time. The horse develops antibodies against the venom. The horse is bled and the antibodies purified for later use. Doctors recommend the use of anti-inflammatory medications before antivenom administration, because antivenom can induce allergic reactions to the horse proteins. The efficacy of antivenom has come under scrutiny as patients receiving placebo have also recovered quickly.
Antivenom is used widely in Australia for redback bites; however, in the United States it is less commonly used. Antivenom made from prior spider bite victims has been used since the 1920s. Opiates such as morphine relieve pain and benzodiazepines ease muscle spasm in most patients.
As with many diseases in developing nations, (including trypanosomiasis and malaria) effective and affordable chemotherapy is sorely lacking and parasites or insect vectors are becoming increasingly resistant to existing anti-parasite drugs. Possibly due to the lack of financial return, new drugs are slow to emerge and much of the basic research into potential drug targets takes place in universities, funded by charitable organizations. Product Development Partnerships (PDPs) like Drugs for Neglected Diseases "initiatives" also work on the development of new treatments (combination treatments and new chemical entities) for visceral leishmaniasis.
The traditional treatment is with pentavalent antimonials such as sodium stibogluconate and meglumine antimoniate. Resistance is now common in India, and rates of resistance have been shown to be as high as 60% in parts of Bihar, India.
The treatment of choice for visceral leishmaniasis acquired in India is now Amphotericin B in its various liposomal preparations. In East Africa, the WHO recommended treatment is SSG&PM (sodium stibogluconate and paromomycin) developed by Drugs for Neglected Diseases "initiative" (DNDi)in 2010.
Miltefosine is the first oral treatment for this disease. The cure rate of miltefosine in Phase III clinical trials is 95%; Studies in Ethiopia show that is also effective in Africa. In HIV immunosuppressed people which are coinfected with leishmaniasis it has shown that even in resistant cases 2/3 of the people responded to this new treatment.
Miltefosine has received approval by the Indian regulatory authorities in 2002, in Germany in 2004 and in U.S.A. in 2014. It is now registered in many countries.
The drug is generally better tolerated than other drugs. Main side effects are gastrointestinal disturbance in the first or second day of treatment (a course of treatment is 28 days) which does not affect the efficacy. Because it is available as an oral formulation, the expense and inconvenience of hospitalization is avoided, and outpatient distribution of the drug becomes an option, making Miltefosine a drug of choice.
Incomplete treatment has been cited as a major reason of death from visceral leishmaniasis.
The nonprofit Institute for OneWorld Health has adopted the broad spectrum antibiotic paromomycin for use in treating VL; its antileishmanial properties were first identified in the 1980s. A treatment with paromomycin costs about $15 USD. The drug had originally been identified in the 1960s. The Indian government approved paromomycin for sale and use in August 2006.
Mongolian spots usually resolve by early childhood and hence no treatment is generally needed if they are located in the sacral area. However, sometimes it may be required for extra sacral lesions to have surgical correction. Q-switched alexandrite lasers have been used for treatment. Good results are obtained if treatment is initiated before the age of 20 years. In a study done by the University of Tokyo, the effectiveness of the Q-switched alexandrite laser in treating Mongolian spots was evaluated. A retrospective study was done from April 2003 to September 2011. 16 patients, aged 14-55, were treated with Q-switched alexandrite laser. A good therapeutic outcome was achieved on the whole group, however two patients with sacral Mongolian spots suffered from inflammatory hyperpigmentation, and two patients got post inflammatory hypopigmentation after seven sessions of laser treatment.
Incisions across the groove turned out to be ineffective. Excision of the groove followed by z-plasty could relieve pain and prevent autoamputation in Grade I and Grade II lesions. Grade III lesions are treated with disarticulating the metatarsophalangeal joint. This also relieves pain, and all patients have a useful and stable foot. Intralesional injection of corticosteroids is also helpful.
The treatment is determined by where the disease is acquired, the species of "Leishmania", and the type of infection.
For visceral leishmaniasis in India, South America, and the Mediterranean, liposomal amphotericin B is the recommended treatment and is often used as a single dose. Rates of cure with a single dose of amphotericin have been reported as 95%. In India, almost all infections are resistant to pentavalent antimonials. In Africa, a combination of pentavalent antimonials and paromomycin is recommended. These, however, can have significant side effects. Miltefosine, an oral medication, is effective against both visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis. Side effects are generally mild, though it can cause birth defects if taken within 3 months of getting pregnant. It does not appear to work for "L. major" or "L. braziliensis".
The evidence around the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis is poor. A number of topical treatments may be used for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Which treatments are effective depends on the strain, with topical paromomycin effective for "L. major", "L. tropica", "L. mexicana", "L. panamensis", and "L. braziliensis". Pentamidine is effective for "L. guyanensis". Oral fluconazole or itraconazole appears effective in "L. major" and "L. tropica".
There are no vaccines or preventive drugs for visceral leishmaniasis. The most effective method to prevent infection is to protect from sand fly bites. To decrease the risk of being bitten, these precautionary measures are suggested:
- Outdoors:
1. Avoid outdoor activities, especially from dusk to dawn, when sand flies generally are the most active.
2. When outdoors (or in unprotected quarters), minimize the amount of exposed (uncovered) skin to the extent that is tolerable in the climate. Wear long-sleeved shirts, long pants, and socks; and tuck your shirt into your pants.
3. Apply insect repellent to exposed skin and under the ends of sleeves and pant legs. Follow the instructions on the label of the repellent. The most effective repellents generally are those that contain the chemical DEET (N,N-diethylmetatoluamide).
- Indoors:
1. Stay in well-screened or air-conditioned areas.
2. Keep in mind that sand flies are much smaller than mosquitoes and therefore can get through smaller holes.
3. Spray living/sleeping areas with an insecticide to kill insects.
4. If you are not sleeping in a well-screened or air-conditioned area, use a bed net and tuck it under your mattress. If possible, use a bed net that has been soaked in or sprayed with a pyrethroid-containing insecticide. The same treatment can be applied to screens, curtains, sheets, and clothing (clothing should be retreated after five washings)."
On February 2012, the nonprofit Infectious Disease Research Institute launched a clinical trial of the visceral leishmaniasis vaccine. The vaccine is a recombinant form of two fused Leishmania parasite proteins with an adjuvant. Two phase 1 clinical trials with healthy volunteers are to be conducted. The first one takes place in Washington (state) and is followed by a trial in India.