The goals of surgical treatment are: reducing length of the thumb, creating a good functioning, a stable and non deviated joint and improving the position of the thumb if necessary. Hereby improving function of the hand and thumb.

In general the surgical treatment is done for improvement of the thumb function. However, an extra advantage of the surgery is the improvement in appearance of the thumb. In the past, surgical treatment of the triphalangeal thumb was not indicated, but now it is generally agreed that operative treatment improves function and appearance. Because an operation was not indicated in the past, there’s still a population with an untreated triphalangeal thumb. The majority of this population doesn’t want surgery, because the daily functioning of the hand is good. The main obstacle for the untreated patients might not be the diminished function, but the appearance of the triphalangeal thumb.

The timing of surgery differs between Wood and Buck-Gramcko. Wood advises operation between the age of six months and two years, while Buck-Gramcko advises to operate for all indications before the age of six years.

- For TPT types I and II of the Buck-Gramcko classification, the surgical treatment typically consists of removing the extra phalanx and reconstructing the ulnar collateral ligament and the radial collateral ligament if necessary.

- For type III of Buck-Gramcko classification proposable surgical treatments:

- For type IV of Buck-Gramcko classification the surgical treatment typically consists of an osteotomy which reduces the middle phalanx and arthrodesis of the DIP. This gives a shortening of 1 to 1.5 cm. In most cases, this technique is combined with a shortening, rotation and palmar abduction osteotomy at metacarpal level to correct for position and length of the thumb. The extensor tendons and the intrinsic muscles are shortened as well.

- For type V of the Buck-Gramcko classification the surgical treatment proposably consists of a "pollicization". With a pollicization the malpositioned thumb is repositioned, rotated and shortened, the above-described rotation reduction osteotomy of the first metacarpal can be performed as well.

- For type VI of the Buck-Gramcko classification, the surgical treatment typically consists of removing the additional mostly hypoplastic thumb(s). Further procedures of reconstruction of the triphalangeal thumb are performed according to the shape of the extra phalanx as described above.

Because neither of the two thumb components is normal, a decision should be taken on combining which elements to create the best possible composite digit. Instead of amputating the most hypoplastic thumb, preservation of skin, nail, collateral ligaments and tendons is needed to augment the residual thumb. Surgery is recommended in the first year of life, generally between 9 and 15 months of age.

Surgical options depend on type of polydactyly.

This type of procedure is recommended for Wassel types 1 and 2 (in which both thumbs are severely hypoplastic) by some congenital hand surgeons. The technique contains a composite wedge resection of the central bone and soft-tissue. This will be achieved with approach of the lateral tissue of each thumb. The goal is to achieve a normal thumb, what concerns the size, which is possible. If the width of the nail bed is greater than 70% of the contralateral thumb, it may be split. Then the nail bed will be repaired precisely.

When it comes to treatment it is important to differentiate a thumb that needs stability, more web width and function, or a thumb that needs to be replaced by the index finger. Severe thumb hypoplasia is best treated by pollicization of the index finger. Less severe thumb hypoplasia can be reconstructed by first web space release, ligament reconstruction and muscle or tendon transfer.

It has been recommended that pollicization is performed before 12 months, but a long-term study of pollicizations performed between the age of 9 months and 16 years showed no differences in function related to age at operation.

It is important to know that every reconstruction of the thumb never gives a normal thumb, because there is always a decline of function. When a child has a good index finger, wrist and fore-arm the maximum strength of the thumb will be 50% after surgery in comparison with a normal thumb. The less developed the index finger, wrist and fore-arm is, the less strength the reconstructed thumb will have after surgery.

Typically, treatment for this condition requires a team of specialists and surgery. Below are the treatments based on the symptom.

In cases of a minor deviation of the wrist, treatment by splinting and stretching alone may be a sufficient approach in treating the radial deviation in RD. Besides that, the parent can support this treatment by performing passive exercises of the hand. This will help to stretch the wrist and also possibly correct any extension contracture of the elbow. Furthermore, splinting is used as a postoperative measure trying to avoid a relapse of the radial deviation.

There is currently recruitment for a clinical trial at Boston's Children Hospital.

While there is no cure for BGS, symptoms can be treated as they arise. Surgery shortly after birth can repair craniosynostosis, as well as defects in the hand to create a functional grasp. There are risks associated with untreated craniosynostosis, therefore surgery is often needed to separate and reshape the bones. Since patients with a RECQL4 mutation may be at an increased risk of developing cancer, surveillance is recommended.

Surgery is an option to correct some of the morphological changes made by Liebenberg Syndrome. Cases exist where surgery is performed to correct radial deviations and flexion deformities in the wrist. A surgery called a carpectomy has been performed on a patient whereby a surgeon removes the proximal row of the carpal bones. This procedure removes some of the carpal bones to create a more regular wrist function than is observed in people with this condition.

More severe types (Bayne type III en IV) of radial dysplasia can be treated with surgical intervention. The main goal of centralization is to increase hand function by positioning the hand over the distal ulna, and stabilizing the wrist in straight position. Splinting or soft-tissue distraction may be used preceding the centralization.

In classic centralization central portions of the carpus are removed to create a notch for placement of the ulna. A different approach is to place the metacarpal of the middle finger in line with the ulna with a fixation pin.

If radial tissues are still too short after soft-tissue stretching, soft tissue release and different approaches for manipulation of the forearm bones may be used to enable the placement of the hand onto the ulna. Possible approaches are shortening of the ulna by resection of a segment, or removing carpal bones. If the ulna is significantly bent, osteotomy may be needed to straighten the ulna. After placing the wrist in the correct position, radial wrist extensors are transferred to the extensor carpi ulnaris tendon, to help stabilize the wrist in straight position. If the thumb or its carpometacarpal joint is absent, centralization can be followed by pollicization. Postoperatively, a long arm plaster splinter has to be worn for at least 6 to 8 weeks. A removable splint is often worn for a long period of time.

Radial angulation of the hand enables patients with stiff elbows to reach their mouth for feeding; therefore treatment is contraindicated in cases of extension contracture of the elbow. A risk of centralization is that the procedure may cause injury to the ulnar physis, leading to early epiphyseal arrest of the ulna, and thereby resulting in an even shorter forearm. Sestero et al. reported that ulnar growth after centralization reaches from 48% to 58% of normal ulnar length, while ulnar growth in untreated patients reaches 64% of normal ulnar length. Several reviews note that centralization can only partially correct radial deviation of the wrist and that studies with longterm follow-up show relapse of radial deviation.

First options for treatment are conservative, using hot or cold packs, rest and NSAID's at first. If no improvement is made, a splint or brace can be used to keep the deviated arm straight. When none of the conservative treatments work surgical intervention is designated.

Non-surgical treatment of radial tunnel syndrome includes rest, NSAID, therapy with modalities, work modification, ergonomic modification, injection if associated with lateral epicondylitis.

Patients whose conditions are more adapted to surgical intervention are those who do not respond to prolonged conservative treatment. The patient must have pain with resisted supination, positive middle finger test, positive electrodiagnostic findings, and pain relief after anesthetic injection into the radial tunnel. Based on 2002 data, surgical decompression leads to 60-70% good or excellent results.

It is sometimes possible to correct the problem with surgery, though this has high failure rates for treatment of post-traumatic radioulnar synostosis.

Depending on the severity of the deformities, the treatment may include the amputation of the foot or part of the leg, lengthening of the femur, extension prosthesis, or custom shoe lifts. Amputation usually requires the use of prosthesis. Another alternative is a rotationplasty procedure, also known as Van Ness surgery. In this situation the foot and ankle are surgically removed, then attached to the femur. This creates a functional "knee joint". This allows the patient to be fit with a below knee prosthesis vs a traditional above knee prosthesis.

In less severe cases, the use of an Ilizarov apparatus can be successful in conjunction with hip and knee surgeries (depending on the status of the femoral head/kneecap) to extend the femur length to normal ranges. This method of treatment can be problematic in that the Ilizarov might need to be applied both during early childhood (to keep the femur from being extremely short at the onset of growth) and after puberty (to match leg lengths after growth has ended). The clear benefit of this approach, however, is that no prosthetics are needed and at the conclusion of surgical procedures the patient will not be biologically or anatomically different from a person born without PFFD.

The treatment and management of radial neuropathy can be achieved via the following methods:

- Physical therapy or occupational therapy

- Surgery(depending on the specific area and extent of damage)

- Splinting

"Ulna reduction"

Adults with Madelung’s deformity may suffer from ulnar-sided wrist pain. Madelung's Deformity is usually treated by treating the distal radial deformity. However, if patients have a positive ulnar variance and focal wrist pathology, it’s possible to treat with an isolated ulnar-shortening osteotomy. In these patients the radial deformity is not treated.

The ulna is approached from the subcutaneous border. A plate is attached to the distal end of the ulna, to plan the osteotomy. An oblique segment is removed from the ulna, after which the distal radial-ulnar joint is freed, making sure structures stay attached to the styloid process. After this, the freed distal end is reattached to the proximal ulna with the formerly mentioned plate.

"Total DRUJ replacement"

An alternative treatment for patients with ulnar-sided wristpain is a total replacement of the distal radial-ulnar joint. There are many surgical treatments of the condition, but most of these only improve the alignment and function of the radiocarpal joint. A persistent problem in these treatments has been the stiff DRUJ. However, a prosthesis helps in managing the pain, and might also improve the range of motion of the wrist.

The procedure consists of making a hockey-stick shaped incision along the ulnar border. This incision is made between the fifth and sixth dorsal compartment. Being careful not to harm any essential structures, like the posterior interosseous nerve, the incision is continued between the extensor carpi ulnaris and the extensor digiti quinti, until the ulna is found. The ulnar head is then removed. A guide wire is then inserted in the medullary canal of the ulna, allowing centralization for a cannulated drill bit. A poly-ethylene ball, which will serve as the prosthesis, is then placed over the distal peg. After confirming full range of motion, the skin will be closed.

"Dome Osteotomy"

In case of Madelung's Deformity in conjunction with radial pain, a dome osteotomy may be conducted. For more information about this procedure, please refer to the treatment of Madelung's Deformity in children.

Operations that attempt to restore a blood supply to the lunate may be performed.

Depending on the stage the disease is in when it is discovered, varying treatments are applied.

If X-rays show a mostly intact lunate (not having lost a great deal of size, and not having been compressed into a triangular shape), but an MRI shows a lack of blood flow to the bone, then revascularization is normally attempted. Revascularization techniques, usually involving a bone graft taken elsewhere from the body — often held in place by an external fixator for a period of weeks or months — have been successful at stages as late as 3B, although their use at later stages (like most treatments for Kienböck's) is controversial.

One conservative treatment option would be using an Ultrasound Bone Stimulator, which uses low-intensity pulsed ultrasound to increase vascular endothelial growth factor (VEG-F) and increase blood flow to the bone.

Some Kienböck's patients present with an abnormally large difference in length between the radius and the ulna, termed "ulnar variance", which is hypothesized to cause undue pressure on the lunate, contributing to its avascularity. In cases with such a difference, "radial shortening" is commonly performed. In this procedure, the radius (the lateral long bone) is shortened by a given length, usually between 2 and 5 mm, to relieve the pressure on the dying lunate. A titanium plate is inserted to hold the newly shortened bone together.

During Stage 3, the lunate has begun to break apart due to the pressure of the surrounding bones. This causes sharp fragments of bone to float between the joints, causing excruciating pain. At this point, the lunate is ready for removal. The most frequently performed surgery is the "Proximal Row Carpectomy", where the lunate, scaphoid and triquetrum are extracted. This greatly limits the range of motion of the wrist, but pain relief can be achieved for longer than after the other surgeries.

Another surgical option for this stage is a titanium, silicon or pyrocarbon implant that takes place of the lunate, though doctors shy from this due to a tendency of the implant to smooth the edges of the surrounding bones, thus causing painful pinched nerves when the bones slip out of place.

After the lunate is removed, another procedure, "ulnar shortening" can be performed. This relieves pressure on the newly formed wrist joint of the pisiform, hamate and capitate. Depending on the surgeon, the procedure may be performed the same way as the "radial shortening" where a small section is removed, or the entire top of the ulna may be excised.

At Stage 4, the lunate has completely disintegrated and the other bones in the wrist have radiated downward to fill in the void. The hand now has a deformed, crippled appearance. The only procedure that can be done is the "total wrist fusion", where a plate is inserted on the top of the wrist from the radius to the carpals, effectively freezing all flexion and movement in the wrist. Rotation is still possible as it is controlled by the radius and ulna.

This is currently the last and most complete surgical option for Kienböck's sufferers.

Most of the treatments described here are not mutually exclusive — meaning that a single patient may receive many of them in his quest to relieve pain. For instance, some patients have had casting, bone graft, radial shortening, proximal row carpectomy, and wrist fusion, all on the same hand.

The Wassel classification is used to categorise radial polydactyly, based upon the most proximal level of skeletal duplication.

Triphalangeal thumb (TPT) is a congenital malformation where the thumb has three phalanges instead of two. The extra phalangeal bone can vary in size from that of a small pebble to a size comparable to the phalanges in non-thumb digits. The true incidence of the condition is unknown, but is estimated at 1:25,000 live births. In about two-thirds of the patients with triphalangeal thumbs, there is a hereditary component. Besides the three phalanges, there can also be other malformations. It was first described by Columbi in 1559.

Schmitt Gillenwater Kelly syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant congenital disorder consisting of radial hypoplasia, triphalangeal thumbs, hypospadias, and maxillary diastema.

In terms of prognosis radial neuropathy is not necessarily permanent, though sometimes there could be partial loss of movement/sensation.Complications may be possible deformity of the hand in some individuals.

If the injury is axonal (the underlying nerve fiber itself is damaged) then full recovery may take months or years ( or could be permanent). EMG and nerve conduction studies are typically performed to diagnose the extent and distribution of the damage, and to help with prognosis for recovery.

In this stage there are two surgical treatment options; total wrist arthroplasty and total wrist arthrodesis.

Total wrist arthrodesis has become the standard surgical treatment for patients with stage IV wrist osteoarthritis. During this procedure the carpal bones are all fused together and are then fastened to the distal radius. Patients who still want to undertake heavy labor benefit the most of this surgical approach, because after surgery and recovery this is still possible. However, the arc of motion is extremely diminished by this type of surgery.

The best option for those who wish for a motion-sparing procedure is total wrist arthroplasty. However, impact loading should be avoided, an object heavier than 4.5 kg should not be lifted. So, this surgical approach has postoperative activity restrictions. Nevertheless, patients with a total wrist arthrodesis on one side and a total wrist arthroplasty on the other, prefer the total wrist arthroplasty. The procedure exists of a couple of elements. First, the proximal row is removed and the distal row is fastened to the metacarpals. Then, one side of the arthroplasty is placed upon the distal row and the other side on the distal radius. Additionally, the head of the ulna is removed.

Post-traumatic wrist osteoarthritis can be treated conservatively or with a surgical intervention. In many patients, a conservative (non-surgical) approach is sufficient. Because osteoarthritis is progressive and symptoms may get worse, surgical treatment is advised in any stage.

Thumb hypoplasia is a spectrum of congenital abnormalities of the thumb varying from small defects to absolute retardation of the thumb. It can be isolated, when only the thumb is affected, and in 60% of the cases it is associated with radial dysplasia (or radial club, radius dysplasia, longitudinal radial deficiency). Radial dysplasia is the condition in which the forearm bone and the soft tissues on the thumb side are underdeveloped or absent.

In an embryo the upper extremities develop from week four of the gestation. During the fifth to eighth week the thumb will further develop. In this period something goes wrong with the growth of the thumb but the exact cause of thumb hypoplasia is unknown.

One out of every 100,000 live births shows thumb hypoplasia. In more than 50% of the cases both hands are affected, otherwise mainly the right hand is affected.

About 86% of the children with hypoplastic thumb have associated abnormalities. Embryological hand development occurs simultaneously with growth and development of the cardiovascular, neurologic and hematopoietic systems. Thumb hypoplasia has been described in 30 syndromes wherein those abnormalities have been seen. A syndrome is a combination of three or more abnormalities. Examples of syndromes with an hypoplastic thumb are Holt-Oram syndrome, VACTERL association and thrombocytopenia absent radius (TAR syndrome).

Patients with abnormal cardiac and kidney function may be more at risk for hemolytic uremic syndrome