Necrotic ring spot can be managed through chemical and cultural controls. Cultural control includes the use of ammonium sulfate or other acidifying fertilizers to suppress the pathogen by lowering the pH of the soil to between 6.0 and 6.2. The more acidic soil discourages the activity of "O. korrae" (9) When reducing pH to these levels, additional manganese applications should be undertaken to compensate for lower pH. As of now, there are only two resistant cultivars of bluegrass, which are ‘Riviera’, and ‘Patriot’ (9). One component of their resistance could be that they are tolerant to low temperature, because the grass is more susceptible to the pathogen under colder temperatures(8). In addition, reducing watering inputs and growing turf on well drained soils can lessen disease symptoms.

Many different fungicides are used to control the pathogen, Fenarimol, Propiconazole, Myclobutanil, and Azoxystrobin (8). Historically, Fenarimol and Myclobutanil were predominantly used (14). In a study where diluted pesticides were sprayed throughout infested test plots, Fenarimol was found to be the most effective with a 94.6% reduction of the disease. Myclobutanil also decreased the amount of disease, but only by 37.7% (8). Myclobutanil is generally recognized as a very weakly acting demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicide and fenarimol is no longer registered for turf so a number of other DMI fungicides have been employed successfully, including Propiconazole, Tebuconazole, Metconazole and others. Pyraclostrobin and Fluoxastrobin have also been used to control the pathogen.

There are many strategies to cultural management. Establishment of new trees that are disease free by trying to plant trees as soon as they are received from the nursery to reduce the amount of stress the tree undergoes to reduce the amount of dead tissue. Apply insecticides to prevent insects such as, peach tree borer to prevent disease causing conidia from entering wounded parts of the tree that the insects create. Prune trees appropriately and at the correct time when buds start to break to promote wide angled branching. Infection at pruning sites is less common when done during late spring because of the smaller amount of inoculum present at this time. Inspect trees occasionally and removed any dead branches to prevent infection at these sites. Training trees properly also helps foster decreased amount of disease. Training trees during the first season to have branches develop wide crotch angles to sustain long orchard life. Avoid excessive and late fertilization during cold season to avoid low temperature injury. Fertilize trees during the early spring to prevent cold-susceptible growth.

Control of Leucostoma Canker is possible through a combination of pest and crop management techniques following life cycles of the trees. The strategy is implemented following techniques aimed at reducing number of pathogenic inoculum, minimizing dead or injured tissues to prevent infection, and improving tree health to improve rapid wound healing. Chemical controls have not been very effective at controlling this disease with no fungicides registered specifically for control of "Leucostoma" spp., and demethylation-inhibiting (DMI) fungicides having almost no effect on "L. persoonii".

There is no known cure for little cherry disease and tolerance breeding programs have not yielded any cultivars able to withstand the effects of the disease for more than a few seasons. Thus, prevention of spread has been the focal point in combating the disease.

Bacterial leaf streak of wheat is not easily prevented, but can be controlled with clean seed and resistance. Some foliar products, such as pesticides and antibiotic compounds, have been tested for effectiveness, but have proven to have insignificant outcomes on the bacterial pathogen.

Using clean seed, with little infection, has yielded effective results for researchers and producers. The pathogen, being seed-borne, can be controlled with the elimination of contaminated seed, however, clean seed is not always a sure solution. Because the pathogen may still live in the soil, the use of clean seed is only effective if both the soil and seed are free of the pathogen. Currently, there are no successful seed treatments available for producers to apply to wheat seed for the pathogen.

Variety resistance is another option for control of the disease. Using cultivars such as Blade, Cromwell, Faller, Howard or Knudson, which are resistant to BLS may reduce the impact of the disease and potentially break the disease cycle. Avoiding susceptible cultivars such as Hat Trick, Kelby, and Samson may also reduce the presence of the disease and reduce the amount of bacterial residue in the soil. Using integrated pest management techniques such as tillage to turn over the soil and bury the infection as well as rotating crops may assist with disease management, but are not a definitive control methods. Depending on conditions, the bacteria may survive for up to 81 months. Because the bacteria is moisture driven, irrigation may also increase the risks of BLS infection.

Despite being one of the few medically important spider bites, there is no established treatment for the bite of a Loxosceles spider. Physicians wait for the body to heal itself, and assist with cosmetic appearance. There are, however, some remedies currently being researched.

Anti-venoms are commercially prepared antibodies to toxins in animal bites. They are specific for each bite. There are several anti-venoms commercially available in Brazil, which have been shown to be effective in controlling the spread of necrosis in rabbits. When administered immediately, they can almost entirely neutralize any ill effects. If too much time is allowed to pass, the treatment becomes ineffective. Most victims do not seek medical attention within the first twelve hours of being bitten, and these anti-venoms are largely ineffective after this point. Because of this, anti-venoms are not being developed more widely. They have, however, been proven to be very effective if administered in a timely manner and could be utilized in Brazil as a legitimate technique.

The bacteria can survive in the rhizosphere of other crops such as tomato, carrots, sweet potato, radish, and squash as well as weed plants like lupin and pigweed, so it is very hard to get rid of it completely. When it is known that the bacterium is present in the soil, planting resistant varieties can be the best defense against the disease. Many available beet cultivars are resistant to "Pectobacterium carotovorum" subsp. "betavasculorum", and some examples are provided in the corresponding table. A comprehensive list is maintained by the USDA on the Germplasm Resources Information Network.

Even though some genes associated with root defense response have been identified, the specific mechanism of resistance is unknown, and it is currently being researched.

Currently, antibiotic drugs such as penicillin or tetracycline are the only effective methods for disease treatment. Within wild populations, disease control consists of reducing the amount of bacterial spores present in the environment. This can be done by removing contaminated carcasses and scat.

In laboratory animals, prevention includes a low-stress environment, an adequate amount of nutritional feed, and appropriate sanitation measurements. Because animals likely ingest bacterial spores from contaminated bedding and feed, regular cleaning is a helpful method of prevention. No prevention methods are currently available for wild animal populations.

Infected fish should be moved into high quality water, where they may recover if their clinical signs are mild.

If disease occurs eradication is required. Once the disease is eradicated good husbandry, surveillance and biosecurity measures are necessary to prevent recurrence. In countries free of epizootic ulcerative syndrome, quarantine and health certificates are necessary for the movement of all live fish to prevent the introduction of the disease.

Calcium deficiency can sometimes be rectified by adding agricultural lime to acid soils, aiming at a pH of 6.5, unless the subject plants specifically prefer acidic soil. Organic matter should be added to the soil to improve its moisture-retaining capacity. However, because of the nature of the disorder (i.e. poor transport of calcium to low transpiring tissues), the problem cannot generally be cured by the addition of calcium to the roots. In some species, the problem can be reduced by prophylactic spraying with calcium chloride of tissues at risk.

Plant damage is difficult to reverse, so corrective action should be taken immediately, supplemental applications of calcium nitrate at 200 ppm nitrogen, for example. Soil pH should be tested, and corrected if needed, because calcium deficiency is often associated with low pH.

Early fruit will generally have the worst systems, with them typically lessening as the season progresses. Preventative measures, such as irrigating prior to especially high temperatures and stable irrigation will minimize the occurrence.

Some bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria, have been used as effective controls of bacterial diseases in laboratory experiments. This relatively new technology is a promising control method that is currently being researched. Bacteriophages are extremely host-specific, which makes them environmentally sound as they will not destroy other, beneficial soil microorganisms. Some bacteriophages identified as effective controls of "Pectobacterium carotovorum" subsp. "betavasculorum" are the strains ΦEcc2 ΦEcc3 ΦEcc9 ΦEcc14. When mixed with a fertilizer and applied to inoculated calla lily bulbs in a greenhouse, they reduced diseased tissue by 40 to 70%. ΦEcc3 appeared to be the most effective, reducing the percent of diseased plants from 30 to 5% in one trial, to 50 to 15% in a second trial. They have also been used successfully to reduce rotting in lettuce caused by "Pectobacterium carotovorum" subsp. "carotovorum", a different bacterial species closely related to the one that causes beet vascular necrosis.

While it is more difficult to apply bacteriophages in a field setting, it is not impossible, and laboratory and greenhouse trials are showing bacteriophages to potentially be a very effective control mechanism. However, there are a few obstacles to surmount before field trials can begin. A large problem is that they are damaged by UV light, so applying the phage mixture during the evening will help promote its viability. Also, providing the phages with susceptible non-pathogenic bacteria to replicate with can ensure there is adequate persistence until the bacteriophages can spread to the targeted bacteria. The bacteriophages are unable to kill all the bacteria, because they need a dense population of bacteria in order to effectively infect and spread, so while the phages were able to decrease the number of diseased plants by up to 35%, around 2,000 Colony Forming Units per milliliter (an estimate of living bacteria cells) were able to survive the treatment. Lastly, the use of these bacteriophages places strong selection on the host bacteria, which causes a high probability of developing resistance to the attacking bacteriophage. Thus it is recommended that multiple strains of the bacteriophage be used in each application so the bacteria do not have a chance to develop resistance to any one strain.

Several decades of research in several countries with many cultivars showed that moderate levels of bitter pit could be controlled with the spraying of the trees with calcium chloride or calcium nitrate during the growing season. However, in the southern hemisphere where highly susceptible fruit had to be harvested early for export to Europe, the problem remained. An attempt to increase the calcium content by applying calcium after harvest had resulted in severe injury to the fruit. Export of susceptible apples from New Zealand was under threat and new methods for controlling bitter pit were investigated. While it was shown that bitter pit was reduced as calcium levels rose, it was not possible to determine a minimum level of calcium that would ensure that the disorder was controlled. The most effective treatment found for closed calyx fruit was to submerge the fruit in the calcium chloride solution and to apply a vacuum and immediately rinsing in water. This overcame the injury problem and gave much better control of the disorder. The vacuum treatment was commercialized in New Zealand for the Cox's Orange Pippin cultivar in 1978 and was used for several years. However the treatment was expensive and could not be used for open calyx cultivars.

A simpler treatment was developed in Western Australia and was adopted in Australia and in New Zealand. This involved dipping the fruit in the calcium solution and rinsing in water after about 36 hours. This treatment has been confirmed by independent workers and has generally been adopted in Australia and New Zealand. Postharvest dipping in a calcium solution has been recommended in some other countries where bitter pit is severe. However the problem of fruit injury does not seem to have been addressed.

It appears that bitter pit can generally be reduced by using good horticultural practices. Usually spraying throughout the growing season with a calcium salt is also necessary for moderately susceptible cultivars. It is more difficult to control storage pit in highly susceptible cultivars as field spraying may not be able to apply sufficient calcium to the fruit. Improved control can be obtained by also dipping the fruit in a 2-3 per cent calcium chloride solution after harvest and rinsing the fruit in water after about 36 hours.

"W. carpophilus" can remain viable for several months and spores are often airborne. Since the fungi thrive in wet conditions, overhead watering should be avoided. Remove and dispose of any infected buds, leaves, fruit and twigs. In fall, fixed copper or Bordeaux mixture can be applied.

Shot hole disease (also called Coryneum blight) is a serious fungal disease that creates BB-sized holes in leaves, rough areas on fruit, and concentric lesions on branches. The pathogen that causes shot hole disease is "Wilsonomyces carpophilus".

Necrotic ring spot is a common disease of turf caused by soil borne fungi (Ophiosphaerella korrae) that mainly infects roots (4). It is an important disease as it destroys the appearance of turfgrasses on park, playing fields and golf courses. Necrotic Ring Spot is caused by a fungal pathogen that is an ascomycete that produces ascospores in an ascocarp (6). They survive over winter, or any unfavorable condition as sclerotia. Most infection occurs in spring and fall when the temperature is about 13 to 28°C (5). The primary hosts of this disease are cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and annual bluegrass (6). Once turf is infected with "O. korrae", it kills turf roots and crowns. Symptoms of the disease are quite noticeable since they appear as large yellow ring-shaped patches of dead turf. Management of the disease is often uneasy and requires application of multiple controls. The disease can be controlled by many different kind of controls including chemicals and cultural.

Dead arm, sometimes grape canker, is a disease of grapes caused by a deep-seated wood rot of the arms or trunk of the grapevine. As the disease progresses over several years, one or more arms may die, hence the name "dead arm". Eventually the whole vine will die. In the 1970s, dead-arm was identified as really being two diseases, caused by two different fungi, "Eutypa lata" and "Phomopsis viticola" (syn. "Cryptosporella viticola").

An escharotic is a substance that causes tissue to die and slough off. Examples include acids, alkalis, carbon dioxide, metallic salts and sanguinarine, as well as certain medicines like imiquimod. Escharotics known as black salves, containing ingredients such as zinc chloride and sanguinarine containing bloodroot extracts, were traditionally used in herbal medicine as topical treatments for localised skin cancers, but often cause scarring and can potentially cause serious injury and disfigurement. Consequently, escharotic salves are very strictly regulated in most western countries and while some prescription medicines are available with this effect, unauthorized sales are illegal. Some prosecutions have been pursued over unlicensed sales of escharotic products such as Cansema.

Little cherry disease or LChD, sometimes referred to as little cherry, K & S little cherry or sour cherry decline, is a viral infectious disease that affects cherry trees, most notably sweet cherries ("Prunus avium") and sour cherries ("Prunus cerasus").

Little cherry disease should not be confused with cherry buckskin disease, which is caused by Phytoplasma.

Note that both diseases are among the diseases referred to as cherry decline.

Bacterial leaf streak (BLS), also known as black chaff, is a common bacterial disease of wheat. The disease is caused by the bacterial species "Xanthomonas translucens" pv. undulosa. The pathogen is found globally, but is a primary problem in the US in the lower mid-south and can reduce yields by up to 40 percent. BLS is primarily seed-borne (the disease is transmitted by seed) and survives in and on the seed, but may also survive in crop residue in the soil in the off-season. During the growing season, the bacteria may transfer from plant to plant by contact, but it is primarily spread by rain, wind and insect contact. The bacteria thrives in moist environments, and produces a cream to yellow bacterial ooze, which, when dry, appears light colored and scale-like, resulting in a streak on the leaves. The invasion of the head of wheat causes bands of necrotic tissue on the awns, which is called Black Chaff.

The disease is not easily managed, as there are no pesticides on the market for treatment of the infection. There are some resistant cultivars available, but no seed treatment exists. Some integrated pest management (IPM) techniques may be used to assist with preventing infection although, none will completely prevent the disease.

Dead arm is a disease that causes symptoms in the common grapevine species, "vitis vinifera", in many regions of the world. This disease is mainly caused by the fungal pathogen, "Phomopsis viticola", and is known to affect many cultivars of table grapes, such as Thompson Seedless, Red Globe, and Flame Seedless. Early in the growing season, the disease can delay the growth of the plant and cause leaves to turn yellow and curl. Small, brown spots on the shoots and leaf veins are very common first symptoms of this disease. Soil moisture and temperature can impact the severity of symptoms, leading to a systemic infection in warm, wet conditions. As the name of this disease suggests, it also causes one or more arms of the grapevine to die, often leading to death of the entire vine.

In almost all cases, recluse bites are self-limited and typically heal without any medical intervention. Recommendations to limit the extent of damage include elevation and immobilization of the affected limb, application of ice. Both local wound care, and tetanus prophylaxis are simple standards. There is no established treatment for more extensive necrosis. Many therapies have been used including hyperbaric oxygen, dapsone, antihistamines (e.g., cyproheptadine), antibiotics, dextran, glucocorticoids, vasodilators, heparin, nitroglycerin, electric shock, curettage, surgical excision, and antivenom. None of these treatments conclusively show benefit. Studies have shown surgical intervention is ineffective and may worsen outcome. Excision may delay wound healing, cause abscesses, and lead to objectionable scarring.

Dapsone, an antibiotic, is commonly used in the United States and Brazil for the treatment of necrosis. There have been conflicting reports with some supporting its efficacy and others have suggested it should no longer be used routinely, if at all.

Most spider bites are harmless, and require no specific treatment. Treatment of bites may depend on the type of spider; thus, capture of the spider—either alive, or in a well-preserved condition, is useful.

Treatment of spider bites includes washing the wound with soap and water and ice to reduce inflammation. Analgesics and antihistamines may be used; however, antibiotics are not recommended unless there is also a bacterial infection present. Black widow post-envenomation treatment seeks to control resulting pain and nausea.

In the case of bites by widow spiders, Australian funnel-web spiders, or Brazilian wandering spiders, medical attention should be sought immediately as in some cases the bites of these spiders develop into a medical emergency. Antivenom is available for severe widow and funnel-web envenomation.

In order to control for the disease, the "Lymnaea" spp snails, which are the intermediate host for the liver flukes, need to be controlled. There are three ways that have proven most effective when controlling the snail populations:

- The first is by treating pastures and water channels with copper sulfate. This method is not always practical, because it is too expensive to treat in large areas. Lack of cooperation between neighbors is also a problem, snails are easily transported, and treated pastures become re-infested by neighboring fields and streams.

- Drenching the sheep with carbon tetra-chloride in paraffin oil has proven to be an alternative. However, drenching in more than recommended doses can be fatal, by causing liver damage, which could initiate the disease in sheep carrying "B. oedematiens" spores.

- Drainage is an effective option to eliminate the snails. However, draining the places where the grass grows eliminates a source of food for the sheep and creates other unwanted problems.