Risk factors such as UVB exposure and smoking can be addressed. Although no means of preventing cataracts has been scientifically proven, wearing sunglasses that counteract ultraviolet light may slow their development. While adequate intake of antioxidants (such as vitamins A, C, and E) has been thought to protect against the risk of cataracts, clinical trials have shown no benefit from supplements; though evidence is mixed, but weakly positive, for a potential protective effect of the nutrients lutein and zeaxanthin. Statin use is somewhat associated with a lower risk of nuclear sclerotic cataracts.

Management of shoulder dystocia has become a focus point for many obstetrical nursing units in North America. Courses such as the Canadian More-OB program encourage nursing units to do routine drills to prevent delays in delivery which adversely affect both mother and fetus. A common treatment mnemonic is ALARMER

- Ask for help. This involves preparing for the help of an obstetrician, for anesthesia, and for pediatrics for subsequent resuscitation of the infant that may be needed if the methods below fail.

- L hyperflexion (McRoberts' maneuver)

- Anterior shoulder disimpaction (pressure)

- Rubin maneuver

- M delivery of posterior arm

- Episiotomy

- Roll over on all fours

Typically the procedures are performed in the order listed above and the sequence ends whenever a technique is successful. Intentional clavicular fracture is a final attempt at nonoperative vaginal delivery prior to Zavanelli's maneuver or symphysiotomy, both of which are considered extraordinary treatment measures.

Cataract removal can be performed at any stage and no longer requires ripening of the lens. Surgery is usually 'outpatient' and performed using local anesthesia. About 9 of 10 patients can achieve a corrected vision of 20/40 or better after surgery.

Several recent evaluations found that cataract surgery can meet expectations only when significant functional impairment due to cataracts exists before surgery. Visual function estimates such as VF-14 have been found to give more realistic estimates than visual acuity testing alone. In some developed countries, a trend to overuse cataract surgery has been noted, which may lead to disappointing results.

Phacoemulsification is the most widely used cataract surgery in the developed world. This procedure uses ultrasonic energy to emulsify the cataract lens. Phacoemulsification typically comprises six steps:

- Anaesthetic – The eye is numbed with either a subtenon injection around the eye (see: retrobulbar block) or topical anesthetic eye drops. The former also provides paralysis of the eye muscles.

- Corneal incision – Two cuts are made at the margin of the clear cornea to allow insertion of instruments into the eye.

- Capsulorhexis – A needle or small pair of forceps is used to create a circular hole in the capsule in which the lens sits.

- Phacoemulsification – A handheld ultrasonic probe is used to break up and emulsify the lens into liquid using the energy of ultrasound waves. The resulting 'emulsion' is sucked away.

- Irrigation and aspiration – The cortex, which is the soft outer layer of the cataract, is aspirated or sucked away. Fluid removed is continually replaced with a saline solution to prevent collapse of the structure of the anterior chamber (the front part of the eye).

- Lens insertion – A plastic, foldable lens is inserted into the capsular bag that formerly contained the natural lens. Some surgeons also inject an antibiotic into the eye to reduce the risk of infection. The final step is to inject salt water into the corneal wounds to cause the area to swell and seal the incision.

Extracapsular cataract extraction (ECCE) consists of removing the lens manually, but leaving the majority of the capsule intact. The lens is expressed through a 10- to 12-mm incision which is closed with sutures at the end of surgery. ECCE is less frequently performed than phacoemulsification, but can be useful when dealing with very hard cataracts or other situations where emulsification is problematic. Manual small incision cataract surgery (MSICS) has evolved from ECCE. In MSICS, the lens is removed through a self-sealing scleral tunnel wound in the sclera which, ideally, is watertight and does not require suturing. Although "small", the incision is still markedly larger than the portal in phacoemulsion. This surgery is increasingly popular in the developing world where access to phacoemulsification is still limited.

Intracapsular cataract extraction (ICCE) is rarely performed. The lens and surrounding capsule are removed in one piece through a large incision while pressure is applied to the vitreous membrane. The surgery has a high rate of complications.

Baker's cysts usually require no treatment unless they are symptomatic. It is very rare that the symptoms are actually coming from the cyst. In most cases, there is another disorder in the knee (arthritis, meniscal (cartilage) tear, etc.) that is causing the problem. Initial treatment should be directed at correcting the source of the increased fluid production. Often rest and leg elevation are all that is needed. If necessary, the cyst can be aspirated to reduce its size, then injected with a corticosteroid to reduce inflammation. Surgical excision is reserved for cysts that cause a great amount of discomfort to the patient. A ruptured cyst is treated with rest, leg elevation, and injection of a corticosteroid into the knee.

Baker's cysts in children, unlike in older people, nearly always disappear with time, and rarely require excision.

Ice pack therapy may sometimes be an effective way of controlling the pain related to Baker's cyst. Heat is also commonly used. A knee brace can offer support giving the feel of stability in the joint.

Rest and specific exercise

Many activities can put strain on the knee, and cause pain in the case of Baker's cyst. Avoiding activities such as squatting, kneeling, heavy lifting, climbing, and even running can help prevent pain. Despite this, some exercises can help relieve pain, and a physiotherapist may instruct on stretching and strengthening the quadriceps and/or the patellar ligament.

In general, the younger the child, the greater the urgency in removing the cataract, because of the risk of amblyopia. For optimal visual development in newborns and young infants, a visually significant unilateral congenital cataract should be detected and removed before age 6 weeks, and visually significant bilateral congenital cataracts should be removed before age 10 weeks.

Some congenital cataracts are too small to affect vision, therefore no surgery or treatment will be done. If they are superficial and small, an ophthalmologist will continue to monitor them throughout a patient's life. Commonly, a patient with small congenital cataracts that do not affect vision will eventually be affected later in life; generally this will take decades to occur.

Courses that teach procedures include ALSO and PROMPT. A number of labor positions and/or obstetrical maneuvers are sequentially performed in attempt to facilitate delivery at this point, including :

- McRoberts maneuver; The McRoberts maneuver is employed in case of shoulder dystocia during childbirth and involves hyperflexing the mother's legs tightly to her abdomen. This widens the pelvis, and flattens the spine in the lower back (lumbar spine). If this maneuver does not succeed, an assistant applies pressure on the lower abdomen (suprapubic pressure), and the delivered head is also gently pulled. The technique is effective in about 42% of cases

- suprapubic pressure (or Rubin I)

- Rubin II or posterior pressure on the anterior shoulder, which would bring the fetus in an oblique position with head somewhat towards the vagina

- Woods' screw maneuver which leads to turning the anterior shoulder to the posterior and vice versa (somewhat the opposite of Rubin II maneuver)

- Jacquemier's maneuver (also called Barnum's maneuver), or delivery of the posterior shoulder first, in which the forearm and hand are identified in the birth canal, and gently pulled.

- Gaskin maneuver, named after Certified Professional Midwife, Ina May Gaskin, involves moving the mother to an all fours position with the back arched, widening the pelvic outlet.

More drastic maneuvers include

- Zavanelli's maneuver, which involves pushing the fetal head back in with performing a cesarean section. or internal cephalic replacement followed by Cesarean section

- intentional fetal clavicular fracture, which reduces the diameter of the shoulder girdle that requires to pass through the birth canal.

- maternal symphysiotomy, which makes the opening of the birth canal laxer by breaking the connective tissue between the two pubes bones facilitating the passage of the shoulders.

- abdominal rescue, described by O'Shaughnessy, where a hysterotomy facilitates vaginal delivery of the impacted shoulder

Traumatic aortic rupture is treated with surgery. However, morbidity and mortality rates for surgical repair of the aorta for this condition are among the highest of any cardiovascular surgery. For example, surgery is associated with a high rate of paraplegia, because the spinal cord is very sensitive to ischemia (lack of blood supply), and the nerve tissue can be damaged or killed by the interruption of the blood supply during surgery.

A less invasive option for treatment is endovascular repair, which does not require open thoracotomy and can be safer for people with other injuries to organs.

Since high blood pressure could exacerbate an incomplete tear in the aorta or even separate it completely from the heart, which would almost inevitably kill the patient, hospital staff take measures to keep the blood pressure low. Such measures include giving pain medication, keeping the patient calm, and avoiding procedures that could cause gagging or vomiting. Beta blockers and vasodilators can be given to lower the blood pressure, and intravenous fluids that might normally be given are foregone to avoid raising it.

RPA's frequently require surgical intervention. A tonsillectomy approach is typically used to access/drain the abscess, and the outcome is usually positive. Surgery in adults may be done without general anesthesia because there is a risk of abscess rupture during tracheal intubation. This could result in pus from the abscess aspirated into the lungs. In complex cases, an emergency tracheotomy may be required to prevent upper airway obstruction caused by edema in the neck.

High-dose intravenous antibiotics are required in order to control the infection and reduce the size of the abscess prior to surgery.

Chronic retropharyngeal abscess is usually secondary to tuberculosis and the patient needs to be started on anti-tubercular therapy as soon as possible.

The delivery of the second twin in a transverse lie with a shoulder presentation represents a special situation that may be amenable to a vaginal delivery. As the first twin has just been delivered and the cervix is fully dilated the obstetrician may perform an internal version, that is inserting one hand into the uterus, find the baby’s feet, and then bring the baby into a breech position and deliver the baby as such.

While a transverse lie prior to labor can be manually versed to a longitudinal lie, once the uterus starts contracting the uterus normally will not allow any version procedure. A shoulder presentation is an indication for a caesarean section. Generally, as it is diagnosed early, the baby is not damaged by the time of delivery. With the rupture of the membranes, there is an increased risk of a cord prolapse as the shoulder may not completely block the birth canal. Thus the caesarean section is ideally performed before the membranes break.

Since the diaphragm is in constant motion with respiration, and because it is under tension, lacerations will not heal on their own. Surgery is needed to repair a torn diaphragm. Most of the time, the injury is repaired during laparotomy. Other injuries, such as hemothorax, may present a more immediate threat and may need to be treated first if they accompany diaphragmatic rupture. Video-assisted thoracoscopy may be used.

Although generally benign, the cyst must be removed if the patient exhibits difficulty in breathing or swallowing, or if the cyst is infected. Even if these symptoms are not present, the cyst may be removed to eliminate the chance of infection or development of a carcinoma, or for cosmetic reasons if there is unsightly protrusion from the neck.

Thyroid scans and thyroid function studies are ordered preoperatively; this is important to demonstrate that normally functioning thyroid tissue is in its usual area.

Surgical management options include the Sistrunk procedure, en bloc central neck dissection, suture-guided transhyoid pharyngotomy, and Koempel's supra-hyoid technique. Cystectomy is an inadequate approach.

Prompt medical treatment should be sought for suspected dislocation.

Usually, the shoulder is kept in its current position by use of a splint or sling. A pillow between the arm and torso may provide support and increase comfort. Strong analgesics are needed to allay the pain of a dislocation and the distress associated with it.

Shoulder reduction may be accomplished with a number of techniques including traction-countertraction, external rotation, scapular manipulation, Stimson technique, Cunningham technique, or Milch technique. Pain can be managed during the procedures either by procedural sedation and analgesia or injected lidocaine into the shoulder joint. Injecting lidocaine into the joint may be less expensive and faster. If a shoulder cannot be relocated in the emergency room, relocation in the operating room maybe required. This situation occurs in about 7% of cases.

The Sistrunk procedure is the surgical resection of the central portion of the hyoid bone along with a wide core of tissue from the midline area between the hyoid and foramen cecum. It involves excision not only of the cyst but also of the path's tract and branches, and removal of the central portion of the hyoid bone is indicated to ensure complete removal of the tract. The original Sistrunk papers (the "classic" procedure described in 1920, and the "modified" procedure described in 1928) are available on-line with a modern commentary.

In general, the procedure consists of three steps:

1. incision

2. resection of cyst and hyoid bone

3. drainage and closure

There are several versions of the Sistrunk procedure, including:

- "classic": excision of the center of the hyoid bone along with a thyroglossal duct cyst, removal of one-eighth inch diameter core of tongue muscle superior to the hyoid at a 45 degree angle up to the foramen cecum to include mucosa, removal of one-quarter inch of the center of the hyoid bone, closure of the cut ends of the hyoid bone, and placement of a drain.

- modified: dissection through the tongue base but not through the mucosa. The modified Sistrunk procedure is the procedure of choice in both primary and revision cases.

- hyoid cartilage division: In cases without mature ossification of the hyoid bone, the non-fused cartilage portion can be divided by monopolar Bovie electro-cauterization or scissors. There were no statistical differences between this modified Sistrunk and the conventional Sistrunk procedure.

The procedure is relatively safe. In a study of 35 pediatric patients, Maddalozzo et. al found no major complications, but did observe minor complications (6 patients presented with seroma and 4 patients with local wound infections). A more recent paper analyzed 24 research studies on different treatment complications of thyroglossal cyst, and reported a total minor complications rate of 6% for the Sistrunk operation (classical or modified) and simple cystectomy treatment modalities. The Sistrunk procedure also showed better outcomes concerning the rate of overall recurrence, i.e. has the lowest rate of recurrence.

Sistrunk procedure results in a 95% cure rate and 95–100% long-term survival.

It is recommended that women with vasa previa should deliver through elective cesarean prior to rupture of the membranes. Given the timing of membrane rupture is difficult to predict, elective cesarean delivery at 35–36 weeks is recommended. This gestational age gives a reasonable balance between the risk of death and that of prematurity. Several authorities have recommended hospital admission about 32 weeks. This is to give the patient proximity to the operating room for emergency delivery should the membranes rupture. Because these patients are at risk for preterm delivery, it is recommended that steroids should be given to promote fetal lung maturation. When bleeding occurs, the patient goes into labor, or if the membranes rupture, immediate treatment with an emergency caesarean delivery is usually indicated.

90% of ruptured testes are successfully repaired when treated surgically within 72 hours; the percentage of successful treatment drops to 45% after this period. Though not typically fatal, testicular rupture can cause hypogonadism, low self-esteem, and infertility.

Vitreous touch syndrome, also known as vitreous wick syndrome is a late complication of intra capsular cataract extraction wherein the vitreous bulges through the pupillary aperture, and touches and attaches to the corneal endothelium.

The treatment options for asymptomatic AAA are management, surveillance with a view to eventual repair, and immediate repair. Two modes of repair are available for an AAA: open aneurysm repair, and endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR). An intervention is often recommended if the aneurysm grows more than 1 cm per year or it is bigger than 5.5 cm. Repair is also indicated for symptomatic aneurysms.

No medical therapy has been found to be effective at decreasing the growth rate or rupture rate of asymptomatic AAAs. Blood pressure and lipids should, however, be treated per usual.

Aortic ruptures can be repaired surgically via open aortic surgery or using endovascular therapy (EVAR), regardless of cause, just as non-ruptured aortic aneurysms are repaired. An aortic occlusion balloon can be placed to stabilize the patient and prevent further blood loss prior to the induction of anesthesia.

If diagnosed within the first few hours of presentation, the pooling blood may be evacuated using a syringe. Once the blood has clotted, removal by this method is no longer possible and the clot can be removed via an incision over the lump under local anesthetic. The incision is not stitched, but will heal very well. Care needs to be taken in regard to bleeding from the wound and possible infection with fecal bacteria. If left alone it will usually heal within a few days or weeks. The topical application of a cream containing a Heparinoid is often advised to clear the clot .

Management involves general measures to stabilize the person while also using specific investigations and treatments. These include the prevention of rebleeding by obliterating the bleeding source, prevention of a phenomenon known as vasospasm, and prevention and treatment of complications.

Stabilizing the person is the first priority. Those with a depressed level of consciousness may need to be intubated and mechanically ventilated. Blood pressure, pulse, respiratory rate, and Glasgow Coma Scale are monitored frequently. Once the diagnosis is confirmed, admission to an intensive care unit may be preferable, especially since 15 percent may have further bleeding soon after admission. Nutrition is an early priority, with by mouth or nasogastric tube feeding being preferable over parenteral routes. In general, pain control is restricted to less-sedating agents such as codeine, as sedation may impact on the mental status and thus interfere with the ability to monitor the level of consciousness. Deep vein thrombosis is prevented with compression stockings, intermittent pneumatic compression of the calves, or both. A bladder catheter is usually inserted to monitor fluid balance. Benzodiazepines may be administered to help relieve distress. Antiemetic drugs should be given to awake persons.

People with poor clinical grade on admission, acute neurologic deterioration, or progressive enlargement of ventricles on CT scan are, in general, indications for the placement of an external ventricular drain by a neurosurgeon. The external ventricular drain may be inserted at the bedside or in the operating room. In either case, strict aseptic technique must be maintained during insertion. In people with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage the EVD is used to remove cerebrospinal fluid, blood, and blood byproducts that increase intracranial pressure and may increase the risk for cerebral vasospasm.

Post-traumatic wrist osteoarthritis can be treated conservatively or with a surgical intervention. In many patients, a conservative (non-surgical) approach is sufficient. Because osteoarthritis is progressive and symptoms may get worse, surgical treatment is advised in any stage.

Emergency exploratory laparotomy with cesarean delivery accompanied by fluid and blood transfusion are indicated for the management of uterine rupture. Depending on the nature of the rupture and the condition of the patient, the uterus may be either repaired or removed (cesarean hysterectomy). Delay in management places both mother and child at significant risk.