Magnesium supplements are used to prevent the disease when ruminants, for obvious economic reasons, must have access to dangerous pastures.

The affected animal should be left in the pasture, and not forced to come back to stall because excitation can darken the prognosis, even after adequate treatment.

Intravenous mixed calcium and magnesium injection are used. Subcutaneous injection of magnesium sulfate (200 ml of 50% solution) is also recommended.

Proper dietary management will prevent most cases of milk fever. This generally involves close attention to mineral and fiber levels in the diet prior to calving, as well as improving cow comfort to eliminate other problems that may interfere with appetite and so trigger hypocalcemia.

Oral administration of a dose of a calcium salt in a gel has been advised by some veterinarians.

An orally administered bolus containing a much higher concentration of calcium than the injectable solutions can also be given so long as the cow is standing or sitting up. If the cow is lying 'flat out' then immediate intravenous therapy is required to avoid death.

Treatment generally involves calcium injection by intravenous, intramuscular or subcutaneous routes. Before calcium injection was employed, treatment comprised inflation of the udder using a pneumatic pump. Inflation of the udder worked because the increased pressure created in the udder pushed the calcium in the udder back into the bloodstream of the cow.

Intravenous calcium, though indicated in many cases, is potentially fatal through "heart blockade", or transient high calcium levels stopping the heart, so should be administered with care.

Cows are to be fed jaggery along with the lime water mixture.

In unclear cases of downer cows, intravenous calcium injection can lead to diagnosis. The typical reaction will be a generalized tremor of the skeletal muscles, and sometimes cardiac arrhythmia. Defecation, urination and eructation are frequent during the treatment, due to pharmacological effect of calcium on the smooth muscles.

Fertilisers like ammonium phosphate, calcium ammonium nitrate, urea can be supplied. Foliar spray of urea can be a quick method.

Recent research suggests that sulfur amino acids have a protective effect against the toxicity of ODAP.

Eating the chickling pea with grain having high concentrations of sulphur-based amino acids reduces the risk of lathyrism if grain is available. Food preparation is also an important factor. Toxic amino acids are readily soluble in water and can be leached. Bacterial (lactic acid) and fungal (tempeh) fermentation is useful to reduce ODAP content. Moist heat (boiling, steaming) denatures protease inhibitors which otherwise add to the toxic effect of raw grasspea through depletion of protective sulfur amino acids. During times of drought and famine, water for steeping and fuel for boiling is frequently also in short supply. Poor people sometimes know how to reduce the chance of developing lathyrism but face a choice between risking lathyrism or starvation.

The underlying cause for excessive consumption of grasspea is a lack of alternative food sources. This is a consequence of poverty and political conflict. The prevention of lathyrism is therefore a socio-economic challenge.

Management of this condition includes|:

- Intravenous calcium gluconate 10% can be administered, or if the hypocalcaemia is severe, calcium chloride is given instead. This is only appropriate if the hypocalcemia is acute and has occurred over a relatively short time frame. But if the hypocalcemia has been severe and chronic, then this regimen can be fatal, because there is a degree of acclimatization that occurs. The neuromuscular excitability, cardiac electrical instability, and associated symptoms are then not cured or relieved by prompt administration of corrective doses of calcium, but rather exacerbated. Such rapid administration of calcium would result in effective over correction – symptoms of hypercalcemia would follow.

- However, in either circumstance, maintenance doses of both calcium and vitamin-D (often as 1,25-(OH)-D, i.e. calcitriol) are often necessary to prevent further decline

Treatment of HSH involves administration of high doses of magnesium salts. These salts may be taken orally or otherwise (e.g. subcutaneously). This treatment works by increasing magnesium absorption through the non-TRPM6 mediated paracellular uptake pathways. This treatment must be continued throughout life.

Necrotic ring spot can be managed through chemical and cultural controls. Cultural control includes the use of ammonium sulfate or other acidifying fertilizers to suppress the pathogen by lowering the pH of the soil to between 6.0 and 6.2. The more acidic soil discourages the activity of "O. korrae" (9) When reducing pH to these levels, additional manganese applications should be undertaken to compensate for lower pH. As of now, there are only two resistant cultivars of bluegrass, which are ‘Riviera’, and ‘Patriot’ (9). One component of their resistance could be that they are tolerant to low temperature, because the grass is more susceptible to the pathogen under colder temperatures(8). In addition, reducing watering inputs and growing turf on well drained soils can lessen disease symptoms.

Many different fungicides are used to control the pathogen, Fenarimol, Propiconazole, Myclobutanil, and Azoxystrobin (8). Historically, Fenarimol and Myclobutanil were predominantly used (14). In a study where diluted pesticides were sprayed throughout infested test plots, Fenarimol was found to be the most effective with a 94.6% reduction of the disease. Myclobutanil also decreased the amount of disease, but only by 37.7% (8). Myclobutanil is generally recognized as a very weakly acting demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicide and fenarimol is no longer registered for turf so a number of other DMI fungicides have been employed successfully, including Propiconazole, Tebuconazole, Metconazole and others. Pyraclostrobin and Fluoxastrobin have also been used to control the pathogen.

To reduce the itching, an application of anti-itch cream containing hydrocortisone, calamine, or benzyl benzoate is often used (though calamine has been shown not to be effective). Hydrogen peroxide and capsaicin cream has also been effective. Another good way to relieve itching is to apply heat—either by using a hand held shower with water hot as one can stand, or by heating the bite with a hair dryer. The heat method will relieve itching for about four hours and will require repeating.

In some cases, the chigger is still present when the bite appears. A 10× magnifier can be used to see the chigger and it may be removed with fine-tipped tweezers. Once it is gone, covering the bite with nail polish, calamine lotion, vaseline or other petroleum jelly, baby oil, or anything else may help the pain and itching, but will neither suffocate the chigger nor help the bites heal any faster. Medication such as antihistamines or corticosteroid creams may be prescribed by doctors, and might help in some instances.

People who have been bitten by a black widow spider are recommended to seek professional medical assistance for symptoms. Symptoms self-resolve in hours to days in a majority of bites without medical intervention.

Medical treatments have varied over the years. Some treatments (e.g. calcium gluconate) have been discovered to be useless. Currently, treatment usually involves symptomatic therapy with pain medication, muscle relaxants, and antivenom. When the pain becomes unbearable, antivenom is administered. Antivenom historically completely resolves pain in a short time. Antivenom is made by injecting horses with latrodectus venom over a period of time. The horse develops antibodies against the venom. The horse is bled and the antibodies purified for later use. Doctors recommend the use of anti-inflammatory medications before antivenom administration, because antivenom can induce allergic reactions to the horse proteins. The efficacy of antivenom has come under scrutiny as patients receiving placebo have also recovered quickly.

Antivenom is used widely in Australia for redback bites; however, in the United States it is less commonly used. Antivenom made from prior spider bite victims has been used since the 1920s. Opiates such as morphine relieve pain and benzodiazepines ease muscle spasm in most patients.

http://www.lawnandmower.com/red-thread-disease.aspx

http://www.grassclippings.co.uk/RedThread.pdf

Most asymptomatic individuals with Gitelman syndrome can be monitored without medical treatment. Potassium and magnesium supplementation to normalize low blood levels of potassium and magnesium is the mainstay of treatment. Large doses of potassium and magnesium are often necessary to adequately replace the electrolytes lost in the urine. Diarrhea is a common side effect of oral magnesium which can make oral replacement difficult but dividing the dose to 3-4 times a day is better tolerated. Severe deficits of potassium and magnesium require intravenous replacement. If low blood potassium levels are not sufficiently replaced with oral replacement, aldosterone antagonists (such as spironolactone or eplerenone) or epithelial sodium channel blockers such as amiloride can be used to decrease urinary wasting of potassium.

Extensive treatments have been used on domestic animals more than on wild animals, probably because infected domestic animals are easier to identify and treat than infected wildlife. Treatment plans and management vary across taxa because this disease tends to affect each species differently. Antifungal drugs are the first line of defense to kill the agents causing phaeohyphomycosis, but despite the significant progress made in the last two decades and a 30% increase in available antifungal drugs since 2000, many drugs are not effective against black fungi. Diseases caused black fungi are hard to treat because the fungi are very difficult to kill. This high resilience may be contributed to the presence of melanin in their cell walls. Current antifungal agents the fungi are not resistant to are posaconazole, voriconazole, and azole isavuconazole.

In 2006, a free-living Eastern box turtle, "Terrapene carolina carolina", was found with a form of phaeohyphomycosis and was brought in the Wildlife Center of Virginia. Its symptom was swelling of the right hindfoot; it was diagnosed as having chromomycosis by histopathology. The center provided a series of antimicrobial treatments and a one-month course of 1 mg itraconazole, administered orally once a day. The eastern box turtle was euthanized due to further complications and the caretakers’ belief that the turtle would not be able to survive if placed back in the wild.

A recent case of a form of phaeohyphomycosis infection was found in a dog in 2011. The Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association published a case study in which researchers successfully managed an intracranial phaeohyphomycotic fungal granuloma in a one-year-old male Boxer dog. Veterinarians of the Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences at Tufts University surgically removed the granuloma in the right cerebral hemisphere. The patient was treated with fluconazole for 4 months, and was followed with voriconazole for 10 months. Both are medications used to treat fungal infections. Based on magnetic resonance imaging and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis 8 months after the surgery, the male Boxer’s outcome was considered excellent.

Emphasis has been placed on how to manage this disease through careful management practices including: proper handling, preventing crowding situation with animals, and transportation. Both the animals and the environment should be treated thoroughly to hinder the spread and control the fungal infection. This is especially important since humans can also contract this disease.

Because "O. sericea" is both frequently encountered and relatively palatable to livestock, it is an important cause of economic losses in livestock production. Keeping livestock away from locoweed infested pasture in spring and fall when grass and other forbs are not actively growing is recommended. Another suggested remedy is to provide palatable supplemental nutrients if animals are to be kept in infested pasture. These remedies take into account livestock preference for locoweed during seasons when grass is dry and not very nutritious. Conditioned food aversion has been used experimentally to discourage livestock from eating it. In horses, a small study has shown promising results using lithium chloride as the aversive agent.

Feeding the lawn with a nitrogen based fertilizer will help the grass recover and help prevent future attacks.

Red Thread can be treated using a fungicide that contains benomyl or carbendazim. The infection will rarely kill the grass, usually only affecting the blades and not the roots, and the lawn should recover in time.

References

1) Ryzin, Benjamin Van. “Red Thread.” "Wisconsin Horticulture", 23 June 2013, hort.uwex.edu/articles/red-thread/

2) Harmon, Philip, and Richard Latin. “Red Thread.” "Purdue Extension", Dec. 2009, www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/bp/bp-104-w.pdf.

3) “Red Thread.” "Plant Protection", NuTurf, nuturf.com.au/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/09/Red-Thread-Info.pdf.

4) “Suppression of Soil-Borne Plant Diseases with Composts: A Review.” "Taylor & Francis", www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09583150400015904

5) “Red Thread — Laetisaria Fuciformis.” "Red Thread (Laetisaria Fuciformis) - MSU Turf Diseases.net - Disease Identification and Information. A Resource Guide from the Dept. of Plant Pathology at Michigan State University", www.msuturfdiseases.net/details/_/red_thread_14/.

6) “Lawn and Turf-Red Thread.” "Pacific Northwest Pest Management Handbooks", OSU Extension Service - Extension and Experiment Station Communications, 4 Apr. 2017, pnwhandbooks.org/plantdisease/host-disease/lawn-turf-red-thread.

The affected areas are treated with iodine solutions. A common method to achieve this is to give the cattle sodium iodide orally on a regular treatment schedule. Antibiotics such as Tetracyclines are also used. These two treatment methods can be used alone or together; simultaneous use is considered more aggressive. Killing the bacteria that cause the infection is the ultimately purpose of these treatment methods. However, they are seldom effective unless treatment is started very early.

It is notable that surgery is not typically considered for treatment of cattle as it is in extreme human cases.

There are several ways to manage turf melting out. They include both cultural and chemical.

The toxicological cause of the disease has been attributed to the neurotoxin ODAP which acts as a structural analogue of the neurotransmitter glutamate. Ingestion of legumes containing the toxin occurs, although knowledge of how to detoxify Lathyrus is present, but drought conditions can lead to fuel and water shortages preventing the necessary steps from being taken, particularly in impoverished countries. Lathyrism usually occurs where the despair of poverty and malnutrition leaves few other food options. Lathyrism can also be caused by food adulteration.

Severe hypocalcaemia, a potentially life-threatening condition, is treated as soon as possible with intravenous calcium (e.g. as calcium gluconate). Generally, a central venous catheter is recommended, as the calcium can irritate peripheral veins and cause phlebitis. In the event of a life-threatening attack of low calcium levels or tetany (prolonged muscle contractions), calcium is administered by intravenous (IV) infusion. Precautions are taken to prevent seizures or larynx spasms. The heart is monitored for abnormal rhythms until the person is stable. When the life-threatening attack has been controlled, treatment continues with medicine taken by mouth as often as four times a day.

Long-term treatment of hypoparathyroidism is with vitamin D analogs and calcium supplementation, but may be ineffective in some due to potential renal damage. The N-terminal fragment of parathyroid hormone (PTH 1-34) has full biological activity. The use of pump delivery of synthetic PTH 1-34 provides the closest approach to physiologic PTH replacement therapy. Injections of recombinant human parathyroid hormone are available as treatment in those with low blood calcium levels.

Respiratory alkalosis is very rarely life-threatening, though pH level should not be 7.5 or greater. The aim in treatment is to detect the underlying cause. When PaCO2 is adjusted rapidly in individuals with chronic respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis may occur. If the individual is on a mechanical ventilator then preventing hyperventilation is done via monitoring ABG levels.

"Actinomyces" bacteria are generally sensitive to penicillin, which is frequently used to treat actinomycosis. In cases of penicillin allergy, doxycycline is used.

Sulfonamides such as sulfamethoxazole may be used as an alternative regimen at a total daily dosage of 2-4 grams. Response to therapy is slow and may take months.

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy may also be used as an adjunct to conventional therapy when the disease process is refractory to antibiotics and surgical treatment.

All plants require sufficient supplies of macronutrients for healthy growth, and nitrogen (N) is a nutrient that is commonly in limited supply. Nitrogen deficiency in plants can occur when organic matter with high carbon content, such as sawdust, is added to soil. Soil organisms use any nitrogen to break down carbon sources, making N unavailable to plants. This is known as "robbing" the soil of nitrogen. All vegetables apart from nitrogen fixing legumes are prone to this disorder.

Nitrogen deficiency can be prevented in the short term by using grass mowings as a mulch, or foliar feeding with manure, and in the longer term by building up levels of organic matter in the soil. Sowing green manure crops such as grazing rye to cover soil over the winter will help to prevent nitrogen leaching, while leguminous green manures such as winter tares will fix additional nitrogen from the atmosphere.

General biocides such as copper, Junction, or ZeroTol offer a potential solution to bacterial wilt of turf grass, however such chemical control ages must be applied after every mowing which may be economically impractical and ultimately phytotoxic. If bacterial wilt is present of the golf course, the best option may be to designate a mower for use on infected greens only in order to prevent the spread of the pathogen to other greens. Other viable methods include simply limiting the number of wounds the plant incurs, thereby limiting entry sites for the pathogen. A simple example would be less frequent mowing. It has also been proven that the disease is most devastating in grass cut to a length of between 1/8 and 3/16 of an inch, but less so in grass over 1/4 of an inch in length or longer, which presents an additional argument for limiting mowing. Another example is limiting sand topdressing as this is also a very abrasive technique which can create small wounds which allow entry of bacteria into the plant.

A major factor complicating the control of Xanthomonas campestris pv. graminis is weather. While it is not possible to control the weather per se, a study found great decreases in pathogen efficacy at temperatures below 20 °C, suggesting that cooling measures may be effective in combating this pathogen.

Ideally, resistant strains of the host plant should be used to control such a plant pathogen, however no resistant cultivars of turf grass have been identified to date. While no completely resistant cultivars exist, golf course owners can find solace in the fact that certain cultivars such as Penncross and Penneagle are more resistant to bacterial wilt and may thus reduce the need for frequent chemical applications and other cultural controls. Researchers are making gains towards the identification of resistant cultivars as evidenced by the finding that variation in genetic linkage groups 1, 4, and 6 accounted for over 43% of resistance among Italian rye grass.

A 1987 study found evidence of a possible biocontrol strategy for bacterial wilt of turf grass. The researchers found that antiserum to Pseudomonas fluorescens or Erwinia herbicola from hosts which have survived infections by the corresponding pathogens is capable of reducing wilt symptoms in turf grass caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. graminis. The researchers did note, however, that while it is important to ensure the presence of a higher number of competing bacterial cells in order to reduce symptoms, one should take care to avoid over-infecting the host with a new bacterial pathogen.

Further gains towards host resistance were made in 2001 when researchers found that inoculation of meadow fescue during breeding with a single aggressive strain of the bacterial wilt pathogen greatly increased resistance in offspring, thereby demonstrating the potential of selective breeding to reduce bacterial wilt pathogenesis on turf and rye grasses.

Sugarcane smut or "Ustilago scitaminea Sydow" is caused by the fungus "Sporisorium scitamineum"; smut was previously known as "Ustilago scitaminea". The smut 'whip' is a curved black structure which emerges from the leaf whorl, and which aids in the spreading of the disease. Sugarcane smut causes significant losses to the economic value of a sugarcane crop. Sugarcane smut has recently been found in the eastern seaboard areas of Australia, one of the world's highest-yielding sugar areas.

For the sugarcane crop to be infected by the disease, large spore concentrations are needed. The fungi uses its "smut-whip" to ensure that the disease is spread to other plants, which usually occurs over a time period of three months. As the inoculum is spread, the younger sugarcane buds just coming out of the soil will be the most susceptible. Because water is necessary for spore germination, irrigation has been shown to be a factor in spreading the disease. Therefore, special precautions need to be taken during irrigation to prevent spreading of the smut.

Another way to prevent the disease from occurring in the sugarcane is to use fungicide. This can be done by either pre-plant soaking or post-plant spraying with the specific fungicide. Pre-plant soaking has been proven to give the best results in preventing the disease, but post-plant spraying is a practical option for large sugarcane cultivations.