The distinction between Hua () and Yi (), also known as Sino–barbarian dichotomy, is an ancient Chinese concept that differentiated a culturally defined "China" (called Hua, Huaxia 華夏, or Xia 夏) from cultural or ethnic outsiders (Yi "barbarians"). Although Yi is often translated as "barbarian", other translations of this term in English include "foreigners",

"ordinary others" "wild tribes", and "uncivilized tribes."

The Hua–Yi distinction asserted Chinese superiority, but implied that outsiders could become "Hua" by adopting Chinese values and customs.

Juche (; ; ), usually left untranslated, or translated as "self-reliance", is the official state ideology of North Korea, described by the government as Kim Il-sung's "original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought". It postulates that "man is the master of his destiny", that the North Korean masses are to act as the "masters of the revolution and construction", and that by becoming self-reliant and strong a nation can achieve true socialism.

Kim Il-sung (1912–1994) developed the ideology, originally viewed as a variant of Marxism–Leninism until it became distinctly "Korean" in character, whilst incorporating the historical materialist ideas of Marxism–Leninism and strongly emphasising the individual, the nation state and its sovereignty. Consequently, "Juche" was adopted into a set of principles that the North Korean government has used to justify its policy decisions from the 1950s onwards. Such principles include moving the nation towards claimed ""jaju"" (independence), through the construction of ""jarip"" (national economy) and an emphasis upon ""jawi"" (self-defence), in order to establish socialism.

The Practice is firmly rooted in the ideals of sustainability through agricultural independence and a lack of dependency.

The "Juche" ideology has been criticized by many scholars and observers as a mechanism for sustaining the totalitarian rule of the North Korean regime, and justifying the country's heavy-handed isolationism and oppression of the North Korean people. It has also been described as a form of Korean ethnic nationalism, but one which promotes the Kim family as the saviours of the "Korean Race" and acts as a foundation of the subsequent personality cult surrounding them.

Foot binding was the custom of applying tight binding to the feet of young girls to modify the shape of their feet. The practice possibly originated among upper class court dancers during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in 10th century China, then became popular among the elite during the Song dynasty and eventually spread to all social classes by the Qing dynasty. Foot binding became popular as a means of displaying status (women from wealthy families, who did not need their feet to work, could afford to have them bound) and was correspondingly adopted as a symbol of beauty in Chinese culture. Foot binding limited the mobility of women, resulting in them walking in a swaying unsteady gait, although some women with bound feet working outdoor had also been reported. The prevalence and practice of foot binding varied in different parts of the country. Feet altered by binding were called lotus feet.

It has been estimated that by the 19th century, 40–50% of all Chinese women may have had bound feet, and up to almost 100% among upper class Han Chinese women. The Manchu Kangxi Emperor tried to ban foot binding in 1664 but failed. In the later part of the 19th century, Chinese reformers challenged the practice but it was not until the early 20th century that foot binding began to die out as a result of anti-foot-binding campaigns. Foot-binding resulted in lifelong disabilities for most of its subjects, and a few elderly Chinese women still survive today with disabilities related to their bound feet.

The process was started before the arch of the foot had a chance to develop fully, usually between the ages of 4 and 9. Binding usually started during the winter months since the feet were more likely to be numb, and therefore the pain would not be as extreme.

First, each foot would be soaked in a warm mixture of herbs and animal blood; this was intended to soften the foot and aid the binding. Then, the toenails were cut back as far as possible to prevent in-growth and subsequent infections, since the toes were to be pressed tightly into the sole of the foot. Cotton bandages, 3 m long and 5 cm wide (10 ft by 2 in), were prepared by soaking them in the blood and herb mixture. To enable the size of the feet to be reduced, the toes on each foot were curled under, then pressed with great force downwards and squeezed into the sole of the foot until the toes broke.

The broken toes were held tightly against the sole of the foot while the foot was then drawn down straight with the leg and the arch of the foot was forcibly broken. The bandages were repeatedly wound in a figure-eight movement, starting at the inside of the foot at the instep, then carried over the toes, under the foot, and around the heel, the freshly broken toes being pressed tightly into the sole of the foot. At each pass around the foot, the binding cloth was tightened, pulling the ball of the foot and the heel together, causing the broken foot to fold at the arch, and pressing the toes underneath the sole. The binding was pulled so tightly that the girl could not move her toes at all and the ends of the binding cloth were then sewn so that the girl could not loosen it.

The girl's broken feet required a great deal of care and attention, and they would be unbound regularly. Each time the feet were unbound, they were washed, the toes carefully checked for injury, and the nails carefully and meticulously trimmed. When unbound, the broken feet were also kneaded to soften them and the soles of the girl's feet were often beaten to make the joints and broken bones more flexible. The feet were also soaked in a concoction that caused any necrotic flesh to fall off.

Immediately after this agonizing procedure, the girl's broken toes were folded back under and the feet were rebound. The bindings were pulled even tighter each time the girl's feet were rebound. This unbinding and rebinding ritual was repeated as often as possible (for the rich at least once daily, for poor peasants two or three times a week), with fresh bindings. It was generally an elder female member of the girl's family or a professional foot binder who carried out the initial breaking and ongoing binding of the feet. It was considered preferable to have someone other than the mother do it, as she might have been sympathetic to her daughter's pain and less willing to keep the bindings tight.

For most the bound feet eventually became numb. However, once a foot had been crushed and bound, attempting to reverse the process by unbinding is painful, and the shape could not be reversed without a woman undergoing the same pain all over again.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are used, especially with exhibitionists, non-offending pedophiles, and compulsive masturbators. They are proposed to work by reducing sexual arousal, compulsivity, and depressive symptoms. However, supporting evidence for SSRIs is limited.

Pharmacological treatments can help people control their sexual behaviors, but do not change the content of the paraphilia. They are typically combined with cognitive behavioral therapy for best effect.

"Juche" comes from a Sino-Japanese word whose Japanese reading is "shutai". The word was coined in 1887 to translate the concept of "" in German philosophy (subject, meaning "the entity perceiving or acting upon an object or environment") into Japanese. The word migrated to the Korean language at around the turn of the century and retained this meaning. "Shutai" went on to appear in Japanese translations of Karl Marx's writings. North Korean editions of Marx used the word "juche", too, even before the word was attributed to Kim Il-sung in its supposedly novel meaning in 1955.

In today's political discourse on North Korea, "Juche" has a connotation of "self-reliance", "autonomy", and "independence". It is often defined in opposition to the Korean concept of "Sadae", or reliance on the great powers. South Koreans use the word without reference to the North Korean ideology.

For those patients who have not been able to stop this disorder on their own, doctors have been working to discover a treatment that will work for everyone. One treatment that Schenck and Mahowald studied consisted of psychotherapy combined with "environmental manipulation". This was usually done separately from the weight-reducing diets. However, during this study only 10 percent of the patients were able to lose more than one third of their initial excess weight, which was not a viable percentage. In addition, they reported that many of the patients experienced "major depression" and "severe anxiety" during the attempted treatments. This was not one of the most successful attempts to help those with NSRED.

However, Dr. R. Auger reported on another trial treatment where patients were treated utilizing pramipexole. Those conducting the treatment noticed how the nocturnal median motor activity was decreased, as was assessed by actigraphy, and individual progress of sleep quality was reported. Nevertheless, Augur also said, "27 percent of subjects had RLS (restless legs syndrome, a condition known to respond to this medication), and number and duration of waking episodes related to eating behaviors were unchanged." Encouraged by the positive response verified in the above-mentioned trial treatment, doctors and psychiatrists conducted a more recent study described by Auger as "efficacy of topiramate [an antiepileptic drug associated with weight loss] in 17 consecutive patients with NSRED." Out of the 65 percent of patients who continued to take the medication on a regular basis, all confirmed either considerable development or absolute remission of "night-eating" in addition to "significant weight loss" being achieved. This has been one of the most effective treatments discovered so far, but many patients still suffered from NSRED. Therefore, other treatments were sought after.

Such treatments include those targeted to associated sleep disorders with the hope that it would play an essential part of the treatment process of NSRED. In Schenck and Mahowald's series, combinations of cardibopa/L-dopa, codeine, and clonazepam were used to treat five patients with RLS and one patient with somnambulism and PLMS (periodic limb movements in sleep). These patients all were suffering from NSRED as well as these other disorders, and they all experienced a remission of their NSRED as a result of taking these drugs. Two patients with OSA (obstructive sleep apnea) and NSRED also reported as having a "resolution of their symptoms with nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) therapy." Clonazepam monotherapy was also found to be successful in 50 percent of patients with simultaneous somnambulism. Interestingly, dopaminergic agents such as monotherapy were effective in 25 percent of the NSRED subgroup. Success with combinations of dopaminergic and opioid drugs, with the occasional addition of sedatives, also was found in seven patients without associated sleep disorders. In those for whom opioids and sedatives are relatively contraindicated (e.g., in those with histories of substance abuse), two case reports were described as meeting with success with a combination of bupropion, levodopa, and trazodone. Notably, hypnotherapy, psychotherapy, and various behavioral techniques, including environmental manipulation, were not effective on the majority of the patients studied. Nevertheless, Auger argue that behavioral strategies should complement the overall treatment plan and should include deliberate placement of food to avoid indiscriminate wandering, maintenance of a safe sleep environment, and education regarding proper sleep hygiene and stress management. Even with their extensive studies, Schenck and Mahowald did not find the success as Auger found by treating his patients with topiramate.

There has been no specific drug therapy developed for hepatitis, with the exception of hepatitis C. Patients are advised to rest in the early stages of the illness, and to eat small, high-calorie, high-protein meals in order to battle anorexia. Larger meals are more easily tolerated in the morning, for patients often experience nausea later in the day. Although high-protein meals are recommended, protein intake should be reduced if signs of precoma — lethargy, confusion, and mental changes — develop.

In acute viral hepatitis, hospitalization is usually required only for patients with severe symptoms (severe nausea, vomiting, change in mental status, and PT greater than 3 seconds above normal) or complications. If the patient experiences continuous vomiting and is unable to maintain oral intake, parenteral nutrition may be required.

In order to relieve nausea and also prevent vomiting, antiemetics (diphenhydramine or prochlorperazine) may be given 30 minutes before meals. However, phenothiazines have a cholestatic effect and should be avoided. The resin cholestyramine may be given only for severe pruritus.

Ancient China was composed of a group of states that arose in the Yellow River valley. According to historian Li Feng, during the Zhou dynasty (ca. 1041–771 BCE), the contrast between the 'Chinese' Zhou and the 'non-Chinese' Xirong or Dongyi was "more political than cultural or ethnic". Lothar von Falkenhausen argues that the perceived contrast between "Chinese" and "Barbarians" was accentuated during the Eastern Zhou period (770–256 BCE), when adherence to Zhou rituals became increasingly recognized as a "barometer of civilization."; a meter for sophistication and cultural refinement. It is widely agreed by historians that the distinction between the Hua and the Yi emerged during that period.

Gideon Shelach claimed that Chinese texts tended to overstate the distinction between the Chinese and their northern neighbors, ignoring many intergroup similarities. He doubted the existence of the Hua–Yi distinction. Nicola di Cosmo doubted the existence of a strong demarcation between the "Zhou Universe" and "a discrete, 'barbarian', non-Zhou universe" and claimed that Chinese historian, Sima Qian's popularized this concept, writing of the "chasm that had always existed between China – the Hua-Hsia [Huaxia] people – and the various alien groups inhabiting the north."

The conclusion of the Warring States period brought the first unified Chinese state-established by the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE-who established the imperial system and forcibly standardized the traditional Chinese script, leading to the first of the distinctions between the refined Hua and the increasingly marginalized Yi. The Han dynasty (221 BCE-206 CE) further contributed to the divide with its creation of a persistent Han cultural identity.

The Han Chinese civilization influenced neighboring states Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Thailand and other Asian countries. Although Han Chinese superiority had only been sporadically reinforced by displays of Chinese military power, the Sinocentric system treated these countries as vassals of the emperor of China, literally "the Son of Heaven" (天子), who was in possession of the Mandate of Heaven (天命), the divine right to rule. Areas outside Sinocentric influence and the divine rule of the Emperor were considered to consist of uncivilized lands inhabited by barbarians.

Throughout history, Chinese frontiers had been periodically attacked by nomadic tribes from the north and west. These people were considered "barbarians" by the Chinese who believed themselves to be more refined and who had begun to build cities and live an urban life based on agriculture. It was in consideration of how best to deal with this threat that the philosopher, Confucius (551 – 479 BCE) was prompted to formulate principles for relationships with the barbarians, briefly recorded in two of his "Analects".

The arrival of European trade and colonialism in the 18th and 19th centuries, exposed Chinese civilization to the developments that had long outstripped China's. As such, the nation was forced to undergo a modification of its traditional views of its relationships with those "barbarians".

Treatment is symptomatic.

Treatment does not require a doctor's attention unless the case is severe, with most affected using a topical anti-itch cream (diphenhydramine) and a cortisone solution (hydrocortisone). Do not scratch the area, and avoid any clothing that may irritate the affected area; scratching will result in localized swelling and intense itching.

Upon exiting the water, prompt removal of swim clothing (while it is still wet) followed by a warm sea-water shower largely negates the risk of Seabather's eruption even in endemic areas. A hot freshwater shower with soap (paying particular attention to the hair and areas covered by the suit) is a somewhat less-effective alternative if uncontaminated seawater is unavailable. The contaminated swimsuit should be machine washed with laundry soap and dried in warm air.

Animals can be affected as well, and a cortisone solution for humans can be used on dogs.

Wannarexia, or anorexic yearning,

is a label applied to someone who claims to have anorexia nervosa, or wishes they did, but does not. These individuals are also called wannarexic, “wanna-be ana” or "anorexic wannabe". The neologism "wannarexia" is a portmanteau of the latter two terms. It may be used as a pejorative term.

Wannarexia is a cultural phenomenon and has no diagnostic criteria, although some wannarexics may be instead diagnosed with eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS). Wannarexia is more commonly, but not always, found in teenage girls who want to be trendy, and is likely caused by a combination of cultural and media influences.

Dr. Richard Kreipe states that the distinction between anorexia and wannarexia is that anorexics aren't satisfied by their weight loss, while wannarexics are more likely to derive pleasure from weight loss. Many people who actually suffer from the eating disorder anorexia are angry, offended, or frustrated about wannarexia.

Wannarexics may be inspired or motivated by the pro-anorexia, or pro-ana, community that promotes or supports anorexia as a lifestyle choice rather than an eating disorder. Some participants in pro-ana web forums only want to associate with "real anorexics" and will shun wannarexics who only diet occasionally, and are not dedicated to the "lifestyle" full-time. Community websites for anorexics and bulimics have posted advice to wannarexics saying that they don't want their "warped perspectives and dangerous behaviour to affect others."

Kelsey Osgood uses the label in her book "How To Disappear Completely: On Modern Anorexia" where she describes wannarexia as “a gateway drug for teenagers”.

Classical Adlerian psychology makes a distinction between primary and secondary inferiority feelings.

- A primary inferiority feeling is said to be rooted in the young child's original experience of weakness, helplessness and dependency. It can then be intensified by comparisons to siblings, romantic partners, and adults.

- A secondary inferiority feeling relates to an adult's experience of being unable to reach a subconscious, reassuring fictional final goal of subjective security and success to compensate for the inferiority feelings. The perceived distance from that reassuring goal would lead to a negative/depressed feeling that could then prompt the recall of the original inferiority feeling; this composite of inferiority feelings could be experienced as overwhelming. The reassuring goal invented to relieve the original, primary feeling of inferiority which actually causes the secondary feeling of inferiority is the "catch-22" of this dilemma, where the desperate attempt to obtain therapeutic reassurance and delivery from a depressing feeling of inferiority and worthlessness repeatedly fails. This vicious cycle is common in neurotic lifestyles.

An inferiority complex is the lack of self-worth, a doubt and uncertainty about oneself, and feelings of not measuring up to standards. It is often subconscious, and is thought to drive afflicted individuals to overcompensate, resulting either in spectacular achievement or extremely asocial behavior. In modern literature, the preferred terminology is "lack of covert self-esteem". For many, it is developed through a combination of genetic personality characteristics and personal experiences.

A number of medications can be used to treat this disorder. Alpha blockers and/or antibiotics appear to be the most effective with NSAIDs such as ibuprofen providing lesser benefit.

- Treatment with antibiotics is controversial. Some have found benefits in symptoms while others have questioned the utility of a trial of antibiotics. Antibiotics are known to have anti-inflammatory properties and this has been suggested as an explanation for their partial efficacy in treating CPPS. Antibiotics such as fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, and macrolides have direct anti-inflammatory properties in the absence of infection, blocking inflammatory chemical signals (cytokines) such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which coincidentally are the same cytokines found to be elevated in the semen and EPS of men with chronic prostatitis.

- The effectiveness of alpha blockers (tamsulosin, alfuzosin) is questionable in men with CPPS. A 2006 meta-analysis found that they are moderately beneficial when the duration of therapy was at least 3 months.

- An estrogen reabsorption inhibitor such as mepartricin improves voiding, reduces urological pain and improves quality of life in patients with chronic non-bacterial prostatitis.

- Therapies that have not been properly evaluated in clinical trials although there is supportive anecdotal evidence include gabapentin, benzodiazepines, and amitriptyline.

Transurethral needle ablation of the prostate (TUNA) has been shown to be ineffective in trials.

The following are the most common treatments of elevated alkaline phosphatase.

- Treatment of the underlying condition

- Once doctors identifies the cause of elevated ALP and diagnose a treatment, the levels of alkaline phosphatase fluctuates back to normal

- Removal of medication - that is associated with increased levels of alkaline phosphatase

- Birth control pills

- Anti-inflammatory medication

- Narcotic medication

- Hormonal drug

- Steroid

- Antidepressant

- Dietary changes

- Include foods rich in vitamin D

- Lifestyle change

- Healthy diet in association with physical exercise

- Exposure to sunlight which increases the production of vitamin D

Radiation therapy is often part of the treatment for DLBCL. It is commonly used after the completion of chemotherapy. Radiation therapy alone is not an effective treatment for this disease.

Current treatment typically includes R-CHOP, which consists of the traditional CHOP, to which rituximab has been added. This regimen has increased the rate of complete response for DLBCL patients, particularly in elderly patients.R-CHOP is a combination of one monoclonal antibody (rituximab), three chemotherapy agents (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine), and one steroid (prednisone). These drugs are administered intravenously, and the regimen is most effective when it is administered multiple times over a period of months. People often receive this type of chemotherapy through a PICC line (peripherally inserted central catheter) in their arm near the elbow or a surgically implanted venous access port. The number of cycles of chemotherapy given depends on the stage of the disease — patients with limited disease typically receive three cycles of chemotherapy, while patients with extensive disease may need to undergo six to eight cycles. A recent approach involves obtaining a PET scan after the completion of two cycles of chemotherapy, to assist the treatment team in making further decisions about the future course of treatment.Older people often have more difficulty tolerating therapy than younger people. Lower intensity regimens have been attempted in this age group.

Prevention is remedies or activities that aim to reduce the likelihood of a disease or disorder affecting people. Lifestyle diseases are preventable for children if parents set them on the correct path, as early life decisions and influences can impact people later on in life. Lifestyle diseases can be prevented through reduction in smoking of tobacco the Australian Government has started this by introducing plain packaging for all tobacco products and increasing the prices of tobacco production. Overweight and obesity can be prevented through a well balanced lifestyle through healthy eating and exercise. Prevention can come about by a person undertaking 30 minutes of moderate exercise daily or by doing 150 minutes of moderate intensity exercise a week. Examples of moderate exercise includes a brisk walk, swim, bike ride or it can also be everyday life activities like mowing the lawn or house cleaning. All causes of lifestyle disease can be prevented through giving up smoking and other drugs, reducing ones intake of alcohol, processed meats (like bacon and sausages), red meats (like pork, beef and lamb), fatty foods and by engaging in daily exercise.

A pseudohallucination is an involuntary sensory experience vivid enough to be regarded as a hallucination, but recognised by the patient not to be the result of external stimuli. Unlike normal hallucinations, which occurs when one sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels something that is not there, with a compelling feeling or thought that it is real, pseudohallucinations are recognised by the person as unreal.

In other words, it is a hallucination that is recognized as a hallucination, as opposed to a "normal" hallucination which would be perceived as real. An example used in psychiatry is the hearing of voices which are "inside the head" according to the patient; in contrast, a hallucination would be indistinguishable to the patient from a real external stimulus, e.g. "people were talking about me".

The term is not widely used in the psychiatric and medical fields, as it is considered ambiguous; the term "nonpsychotic hallucination" is preferred. Pseudohallucinations, then, are more likely to happen with a hallucinogenic drug. But "the current understanding of pseudohallucinations is mostly based on the work of Karl Jaspers".

A further distinction is sometimes made between pseudohallucinations and "parahallucinations", the latter being a result of damage to the peripheral nervous system.

They are considered a feature of conversion disorder, somatization disorder, and dissociative disorders. Also, pseudohallucinations can occur in people with visual/hearing loss, with the typical such type being Charles Bonnet syndrome.

Currently no cure or specific treatment exists to eliminate the symptoms or stop the disease progression. A consistent diet planned with the help of a dietitian along with exercises taught by a speech therapist can assist with mild symptoms of dysphagia. Surgical intervention can also help temporarily manage symptoms related to the ptosis and dysphagia. Cutting one of the throat muscles internally, an operation called cricopharyngeal myotomy, can be one way to ease symptoms in more severe cases.

Physical therapy and specifically designed exercises may assist with proximal limb weakness, though there is still no current definitive data showing it will stop the progress of the disease. Many of those affected with the proximal limb weakness will eventually require assistive devices such as a wheelchair. As with all surgical procedures, they come with many risk factors. As the dysphagia becomes more severe, patients become malnourished, lose significant weight, become dehydrated and suffer from repeated incidents of aspiration pneumonia. These last two are often the cause of death.

Much literature exists regarding the treatment of AIHA. Efficacy of treatment depends on the correct diagnosis of either warm- or cold-type AIHA.

Warm-type AIHA is usually a more insidious disease, not treatable by simply removing the underlying cause. Corticosteroids are first-line therapy. For those who fail to respond or have recurrent disease, splenectomy may be considered. Other options for recurrent or relapsed disease include immunosuppressants such as rituximab, danazol, cyclophosphamide, azathioprine, or cyclosporine.

Cold agglutinin disease is treated with avoidance of cold exposure. Patients with more severe disease (symptomatic anemia, transfusion dependence) may be treated with rituximab. Steroids and splenectomy are less efficacious in cold agglutinin disease.

Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria is treated by removing the underlying cause, such as infection.

Grandiosity refers to an unrealistic sense of superiority—a sustained view of oneself as better than others that causes the narcissist to view others with disdain or as inferior—as well as to a sense of uniqueness: the belief that few others have anything in common with oneself and that one can only be understood by a few or very special people. It also occurs in reactive attachment disorder.

Grandiosity is chiefly associated with narcissistic personality disorder, but also commonly features in manic or hypomanic episodes of bipolar disorder.

Medical management of patients with CRS is often challenging as focus on treatment of one organ may have worsening outcome on the other. It is known that many of the medications used to treat HF may worsen kidney function. In addition, many trials on HF excluded patients with advanced kidney dysfunction. Therefore, our understanding of CRS management is still limited to this date.

Diuretics

ACEI, ARB, renin inhibitors, aldosterone inhibitors

Natriuretic peptides

Vasopressin antagonists

Adenosine antagonists

Ultrafiltration

Inotropes