Most squamous cell carcinomas are removed with surgery. A few selected cases are treated with topical medication. Surgical excision with a free margin of healthy tissue is a frequent treatment modality. Radiotherapy, given as external beam radiotherapy or as brachytherapy (internal radiotherapy), can also be used to treat squamous cell carcinomas.

Mohs surgery is frequently utilized; considered the treatment of choice for squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, physicians have also utilized the method for the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma of the mouth, throat, and neck. An equivalent method of the CCPDMA standards can be utilized by a pathologist in the absence of a Mohs-trained physician. Radiation therapy is often used afterward in high risk cancer or patient types.

Electrodessication and curettage or EDC can be done on selected squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. In areas where SCC's are known to be non-aggressive, and where the patient is not immunosuppressed, EDC can be performed with good to adequate cure rate.

High-risk squamous cell carcinoma, as defined by those occurring around the eye, ear, or nose, is of large size, is poorly differentiated, and grows rapidly, requires more aggressive, multidisciplinary management.

Nodal spread:

1. Surgical block dissection if palpable nodes or in cases of Marjolin's ulcers but the benefit of prophylactic block lymph node dissection with Marjolin's ulcers is not proven.

2. Radiotherapy

3. Adjuvant therapy may be considered in those with high-risk SCC even in the absence of evidence for local mestastasis. Imiquimod (Aldara) has been used with success for squamous cell carcinoma "in situ" of the skin and the penis, but the morbidity and discomfort of the treatment is severe. An advantage is the cosmetic result: after treatment, the skin resembles normal skin without the usual scarring and morbidity associated with standard excision. Imiquimod is not FDA-approved for any squamous cell carcinoma.

In general, squamous cell carcinomas have a high risk of local recurrence, and up to 50% do recur. Frequent skin exams with a dermatologist is recommended after treatment.

Surgical excision (removal) of the tumor is usually recommended if the tumor is small enough, and if surgery is likely to result in a functionally satisfactory result. Radiation therapy with or without chemotherapy is often used in conjunction with surgery, or as the definitive radical treatment, especially if the tumour is inoperable. Surgeries for oral cancers include:

- Maxillectomy (can be done with or without orbital exenteration)

- Mandibulectomy (removal of the mandible or lower jaw or part of it)

- Glossectomy (tongue removal, can be total, hemi or partial). When glossectomy is performed for smaller tumors (< 4 cm), the adequacy of resection (margin status) is best assessed from the resected specimen itself. The status of the margin (positive/tumor cut through versus negative/clear margin) obtained from the glossectomy specimen appears to be of prognostic value, while the status of the margin sampled from the post-glossectomy defect is not. The method of margin sampling appears to correlate with local recurrence: preference for tumor bed/defect margins may be associated with worse local control.

- Radical neck dissection

- Mohs surgery or CCPDMA

- Combinational, e.g. glossectomy and laryngectomy done together

- Feeding tube to sustain nutrition

Owing to the vital nature of the structures in the head and neck area, surgery for larger cancers is technically demanding. Reconstructive surgery may be required to give an acceptable cosmetic and functional result. Bone grafts and surgical flaps such as the radial forearm flap are used to help rebuild the structures removed during excision of the cancer. An oral prosthesis may also be required. Most oral cancer patients depend on a feeding tube for their hydration and nutrition. Some will also get a port for the chemo to be delivered. Many oral cancer patients are disfigured and suffer from many long term after effects. The after effects often include fatigue, speech problems, trouble maintaining weight, thyroid issues, swallowing difficulties, inability to swallow, memory loss, weakness, dizziness, high frequency hearing loss and sinus damage.

Survival rates for oral cancer depend on the precise site and the stage of the cancer at diagnosis. Overall, 2011 data from the SEER database shows that survival is around 57% at five years when all stages of initial diagnosis, all genders, all ethnicities, all age groups, and all treatment modalities are considered. Survival rates for stage 1 cancers are approximately 90%, hence the emphasis on early detection to increase survival outcome for patients. Similar survival rates are reported from other countries such as Germany.

Following treatment, rehabilitation may be necessary to improve movement, chewing, swallowing, and speech. Speech and language pathologists may be involved at this stage.

Chemotherapy is useful in oral cancers when used in combination with other treatment modalities such as radiation therapy. It is not used alone as a monotherapy. When a cure is unlikely, it can also be used to extend life and can be considered palliative but not curative care. Biological agents such as Cetuximab have recently been shown to be effective in the treatment of squamous cell head and neck cancers, and are likely to have an increasing role in the future management of this condition when used in conjunction with other established treatment modalities.

Treatment of oral cancer will usually be by a multidisciplinary team, with treatment professionals from the realms of radiation, surgery, chemotherapy, nutrition, dentistry, and even psychology all possibly involved with diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation, and patient care.

Appropriate sun-protective clothing, use of broad-spectrum (UVA/UVB) sunscreen with at least SPF 50, and avoidance of intense sun exposure may prevent skin cancer.

Chemotherapy in throat cancer is not generally used to "cure" the cancer as such. Instead, it is used to provide an inhospitable environment for metastases so that they will not establish in other parts of the body. Typical chemotherapy agents are a combination of paclitaxel and carboplatin. Cetuximab is also used in the treatment of throat cancer.

Docetaxel-based chemotherapy has shown a very good response in locally advanced head and neck cancer. Docetaxel is the only taxane approved by US FDA for head and neck cancer, in combination with cisplatin and fluorouracil for the induction treatment of inoperable, locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck.

While not specifically a chemotherapy, amifostine is often administered intravenously by a chemotherapy clinic prior to IMRT radiotherapy sessions. Amifostine protects the gums and salivary glands from the effects of radiation.

Photodynamic therapy may have promise in treating mucosal dysplasia and small head and neck tumors. Amphinex is giving good results in early clinical trials for treatment of advanced head and neck cancer.

Treatment may include the following:

- Surgery with or without radiation

- Radiotherapy

Fast neutron therapy has been used successfully to treat salivary gland tumors, and has shown to be significantly more effective than photons in studies treating unresectable salivary gland tumors.

- Chemotherapy

Treatment of small melanomas is often not necessary, but large tumors can cause discomfort and are usually surgically removed. Cisplatin and cryotherapy can be used to treat small tumors less than 3 centimeters, but tumors may reoccur. Cimetidine, a histamine stimulator, can cause tumors to regress in some horses, but may take up to 3 months to produce results and multiple treatments may be needed throughout the horse's life. There are few viable treatment options for horses with metastatic melanoma. However, gene therapy injections utilizing interleukin-12 and 18-encoding DNA plasmids have shown promise in slowing the progression of tumors in patients with metastatic melanoma.

The US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) in 2013 stated evidence was insufficient to determine the balance of benefits and harms of screening for oral cancer in adults without symptoms by primary care providers. The American Academy of Family Physicians comes to similar conclusions while the American Cancer Society recommends that adults over 20 years who have periodic health examinations should have the oral cavity examined for cancer. The American Dental Association recommends that providers remain alert for signs of cancer during routine examinations.

There are a variety of screening devices, however, there is no evidence that routine use of these devices in general dental practice is helpful. However, there are compelling reasons to be concerned about the risk of harm this device may cause if routinely used in general practice. Such harms include false positives, unnecessary surgical biopsies and a financial burden on the patient.

Treatment involves biopsy of the lesion to identify extent of dysplasia. Complete excision of the lesion is sometimes advised depending on the histopathology found in the biopsy. Even in these cases, recurrence of the erythroplakia is common and, thus, long-term monitoring is needed.

Many different topical and systemic medications have been studied, including anti-inflammatories, antimycotics (target Candida species), carotenoids (precursors to vitamin A, e.g. beta carotene), retinoids (drugs similar to vitamin A), and cytotoxics, but none have evidence that they prevent malignant transformation in an area of leukoplakia.Vitamins C and E have also been studied with regards a therapy for leukoplakia. Some of this research is carried out based upon the hypothesis that antioxidant nutrients, vitamins and cell growth suppressor proteins (e.g. p53) are antagonistic to oncogenesis. High doses of retinoids may cause toxic effects. Other treatments that have been studied include photodynamic therapy.

Surgery is the most common treatment for cancer of the urethra. One of the following types of surgery may be done: Open excision, Electro-resection with flash, Laser surgery, Cystourethrectomy, Cystoprostatectomy, Anterior body cavity, or Incomplete or basic penectomy surgery.

Chemotherapy is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has metastasized. Commonly used drugs include cisplatin, vincristine, and methotrexate.

Side effects include anemia (causing fatigue, weakness), nausea and vomiting, loss of appetite, hair loss, mouth sores, increased risk for infection, shortness of breath, or excessive bleeding and bruising.

Surgical removal of the lesion is the first choice of treatment for many clinicians. However, the efficacy of this treatment modality cannot be assessed due to insufficient available evidence. This can be carried out by traditional surgical excision with a scalpel, with lasers, or with eletrocautery or cryotherapy. Often if biopsy demonstrates moderate or severe dysplasia then the decision to excise them is taken more readily. Sometimes white patches are too large to remove completely and instead they are monitored closely. Even if the lesion is completely removed, long term review is still usually indicated since leukoplakia can recur, especially if predisposing factors such as smoking are not stopped.

While sarcoids may spontaneously regress regardless of treatment in some instances, course and duration of disease is highly unpredictable and should be considered on a case-by-case basis taking into account cost of the treatment and severity of clinical signs. Surgical removal alone is not effective, with recurrence occurring in 50 to 64% of cases, but removal is often done in conjunction with other treatments. Topical treatment with products containing bloodroot extract (from the plant "Sanguinaria canadensis") for 7 to 10 days has been reported to be effective in removing small sarcoids, but the salve's caustic nature may cause pain and the sarcoid must be in an area where a bandage can be applied. Freezing sarcoids with liquid nitrogen (cryotherapy) is another affordable method, but may result in scarring or depigmentation. Topical application of the anti-metabolite 5-fluorouracil has also obtained favorable results, but it usually takes 30 to 90 days of repeated application before any effect can be realized. Injection of small sarcoids (usually around the eyes) with the chemotherapeutic agent cisplatin and the immunomodulator BCG have also achieved some success. In one trial, BCG was 69% effective in treating nodular and small fibroblastic sarcoids around the eye when repeatedly injected into the lesion and injection with cisplatin was 33% effective overall (mostly in horses with nodular sarcoids). However, BCG treatment carries a risk of allergic reaction in some horses and cisplatin has a tendency to leak out of sarcoids during repeated dosing. External beam radiation can also be used on small sarcoids, but is often impractical. Cisplatin electrochemotherapy (the application of an electrical field to the sarcoid after the injection of cisplatin, with the horse under general anesthesia), when used with or without prior surgery to remove the sarcoid, had a non-recurrence rate after four years of 97.9% in one retrospective study. There is a chance of sarcoid recurrence for all modalities even after apparently successful treatment. While sarcoids are not fatal, large aggressive tumors that destroy surrounding tissue can cause discomfort and loss of function and be resistant to treatment, making euthanasia justifiable in some instances. Sarcoids may be the most common skin-related reason for euthanasia.

Treatment may involve smoking cessation and prescription of topical or systemic antifungal medication. Usually the mucosal changes resolve with antifungal therapy, but sometimes the lesion is resistant to complete resolution.

Apart from stopping the habit, no other treatment is indicated. Long term follow-up is usually carried out. Some recommend biopsy if the lesions persists more than 6 weeks after giving up smokeless tobacco use, or if the lesion undergoes a change in appearance (e.g. ulceration, thickening, color changes, especially to speckled white and red or entirely red). Surgical excision may be carried out if the lesion does not resolve.

Women with benign germ cell tumors such as mature teratomas (dermoid cysts) are cured by ovarian cystectomy or oophorectomy. In general, all patients with malignant germ cell tumors will have the same staging surgery that is done for epithelial ovarian cancer. If the patient is in her reproductive years, an alternative is unilateral salpingoophorectomy, while the uterus, the ovary, and the fallopian tube on the opposite side can be left behind. This isn't an option when the cancer is in both ovaries. If the patient has finished having children, the surgery involves complete staging including salpingoophorectomy on both sides as well as hysterectomy.

Most patients with germ cell cancer will need to be treated with combination chemotherapy for at least 3 cycles. The chemotherapy regimen most commonly used in germ cell tumors is called PEB (or BEP), and consists of bleomycin, etoposide, a platinum-based antineoplastic (cisplatin).

Head and neck cancers are malignant neoplasms that arise in the head and region which comprises nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, oral cavity, salivary glands, pharynx, and larynx. Majority of head and neck cancers histologically belong to squamous cell type and hence they are categorized as Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (abbreviated as HNSCC)[Forastiere AA, 2003]. HNSCC are the 6th most common cancers worldwide and 3rd most common cancers in developing world. They account for ~ 5% of all malignancies worldwide (Ferlay J, 2010) and 3% of all malignancies in the United States (Siegel R, 2014).

Risk factors include tobacco consumption (chewing or smoking), alcohol consumption, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, human papilloma virus (HPV; esp. HPV 16, 18) infection, betel nut chewing, wood dust exposures, consumption of certain salted fish and others (NCI Factsheet, 2013). EBV infection has been specifically associated with nasopharyngeal cancer. Reverse smoking was considered as a risk factor for oral cancer. Interestingly, "Cis-retinoic acid" (i.e. supplements of retinoic acid) intake may increase the risk of HNSCC in active smokers. Low consumption of fruits and vegetables was associated with higher incidence of HNSCC.

HNSCC classification: Based on the HPV infection status, head and neck cancers are classified into HPV-positive and HPV-negative categories. So far, this is the only available molecular classification. Majority (>50%) of oral cancers are HPV-positive in the U.S. HPV-positive oral cancers are widely prevalent in younger patients and are associated with multiple sexual partners and oral sexual practices. HPV-positive cancers have better prognosis, especially for nonsmokers as compared to HPV-negative cancers.

Staging and grading of HNSCC: HNSCC are classified according to the tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) system of American Joint Committee on cancer. TNM staging system for HNSCC are discussed else where.

Symptoms include lump or sore, sore throat, hoarse of voice, difficulty in swallowing etc (NCI Factsheet, 2013).

Treatment for HNSCC is predominantly based on the stage of the disease. Factors such as patient fitness, baseline swallow, airway functional status, and others are considered before determining the treatment plan. Standard of care for HNSCC includes one or combination of the following: surgery, radiation, chemotherapeutic agents such as Cisplatin, 5-Flurouracil (5-FU) etc. Molecularly targeted therapies were developed since the discovery of role of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling in HNSCC development, progression and prognosis. These targeted therapies include monoclonal antibodies (such as cetuximab, panitumumab etc.) and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (such as erlotinib, gefitinib, etc.). Among these EGFR-targeting agents, only cetuximab has been approved by FDA in 2006 for HNSCC treatment.

Ninety percent (MacMillan, 2015) of cases of head and neck cancer (cancer of the mouth, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, throat and associated structures) are due to squamous cell carcinoma. Symptoms may include a poorly healing mouth ulcer, a hoarse voice or other persistent problems in the area. Treatment is usually with surgery (which may be extensive) and radiotherapy. Risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (Elad S, Zadik Y, Zeevi I, et al., 2010, pp. 1243–1244). In addition, recent studies show that about 25% of mouth and 35% of throat cancers are associated with HPV. The 5 year disease free survival rate for HPV positive cancer is significantly higher when appropriately treated with surgery, radiation and chemotherapy as compared to non-HPV positive cancer, substantiated by multiple studies including research conducted by Maura Gillison, "et al." of Johns Hopkins Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center.

Squamous cell carcinomas, also known as epidermoid carcinoma are a number of different types of cancer that result from squamous cells. These cells form the surface of the skin lining of hollow organs in the body and line the respiratory and digestive tracts.

Common types include:

- Squamous cell skin cancer: A type of skin cancer

- Squamous-cell carcinoma of the lung: A type of lung cancer

- Squamous cell thyroid carcinoma: A type of thyroid cancer

- Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: A type of esophageal cancer

Despite sharing the name "squamous cell carcinoma", the SCCs of different body sites can show differences in their presented symptoms, natural history, prognosis, and response to treatment.

Human papillomavirus infection (HPV) has been associated with SCC of the oropharynx, lung, fingers and anogenital region.

Treatment of ranulas usually involves removal of the sublingual gland. Surgery may not be required if the ranula is small and asymptomatic. Marsupialization may sometimes be used, where the intra-oral lesion is opened to the oral cavity with the aim of allowing the sublingual gland to re-establish connection with the oral cavity.

Leukoedema is a harmless condition, and no treatment is indicated. People may be alarmed by the appearance and benefit from reassurance.

There is no treatment, but because this is a benign condition with no serious clinical complications, prognosis is excellent.

The 1997 International Germ Cell Consensus Classification is a tool for estimating the risk of relapse after treatment of malignant germ cell tumor.

A small study of ovarian tumors in girls reports a correlation between cystic and benign tumors and, conversely, solid and malignant tumors. Because the cystic extent of a tumor can be estimated by ultrasound, MRI, or CT scan before surgery, this permits selection of the most appropriate surgical plan to minimize risk of spillage of a malignant tumor.

Access to appropriate treatment has a large effect on outcome. A 1993 study of outcomes in Scotland found that for 454 men with non-seminomatous (non-germinomatous) germ cell tumors diagnosed between 1975 and 1989, 5-year survival increased over time and with earlier diagnosis. Adjusting for these and other factors, survival was 60% higher for men treated in a cancer unit that treated the majority of these men, even though the unit treated more men with the worst prognosis.

Choriocarcinoma of the testicles has the worst prognosis of all germ cell cancers

Most doctors consider this a normal physiological phenomenon and advise against treatment.

Since most cases cause no symptoms, reassuring the person affected that the condition is entirely benign is usually the only treatment.

When symptoms are present, topical anesthetics can be used to provide temporary relief. Other medications that have been used to manage the symptoms include antihistamines, corticosteroids or anxiolytics, but these drugs have not been formally assessed for efficacy in geographic tongue. If some foods exacerbate or trigger the symptoms, then cutting these foods out of the diet may benefit. One uncontrolled trial has shown some benefit in controlling the symptoms of geographic tongue.