Surgery, if feasible, is the only curative therapy. If the tumor has metastasized (most commonly, to the liver) and is considered incurable, there are some promising treatment modalities, such as radiolabeled octreotide (e.g. Lutetium (Lu) DOTA-octreotate) or the radiopharmaceutical 131I-mIBG (meta iodo benzyl guanidine) for arresting the growth of the tumors and prolonging survival in patients with liver metastases, though these are currently experimental.

Chemotherapy is of little benefit and is generally not indicated. Octreotide or Lanreotide (somatostatin analogues) may decrease the secretory activity of the carcinoid, and may also have an anti-proliferative effect. Interferon treatment is also effective, and usually combined with somatostatin analogues.

As the metastatic potential of a coincidental carcinoid is probably low, the current recommendation is for follow up in 3 months with CT or MRI, labs for tumor markers such as serotonin, and a history and physical, with annual physicals thereafter.

Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for thymoma. If the tumor is apparently invasive and large, preoperative (neoadjuvant) chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy may be used to decrease the size and improve resectability, before surgery is attempted. When the tumor is an early stage (Masaoka I through IIB), no further therapy is necessary. Removal of the thymus in adults does not appear to induce immune deficiency. In children, however, postoperative immunity may be abnormal and vaccinations for several infectious agents are recommended. Invasive thymomas may require additional treatment with radiotherapy and chemotherapy (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin and cisplatin).. Recurrences of thymoma are described in 10-30% of cases up to 10 years after surgical resection, and in the majority of cases also pleural recurrences can be removed. Recently, surgical removal of pleural recurrences can be followed by hyperthermic intrathoracic perfusion chemotherapy or Intrathoracic hyperthermic perfused chemotherapy (ITH).

Even if the tumor has advanced and metastasized, making curative surgery infeasible, surgery often has a role in neuroendocrine cancers for palliation of symptoms and possibly increased lifespan.

Cholecystectomy is recommended if there is a consideration of long-term treatment with somatostatin analogs.

In secretory tumors, somatostatin analogs given subcutaneously or intramuscularly alleviate symptoms by blocking hormone release. A consensus review has reported on the use of somatostatin analogs for GEP-NETs.

These medications may also anatomically stabilize or shrink tumors, as suggested by the PROMID study (Placebo-controlled prospective randomized study on the antiproliferative efficacy of Octreotide LAR in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine MIDgut tumors): at least in this subset of NETs, average tumor stabilization was 14.3 months compared to 6 months for placebo.

The CLARINET study (a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study on the antiproliferative effects of lanreotide in patients with enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors) further demonstrated the antiproliferative potential of lanreotide, a somatostatin analog and recently approved FDA treatment for GEP-NETS. In this study, lanreotide showed a statistically significant improvement in progression-free survival, meeting its primary endpoint. The disease in sixty five percent of patients treated with lanreotide in the study had not progressed or caused death at 96 weeks, the same was true of 33% of patients on placebo. This represented a 53% reduction in risk of disease progression or death with lanreotide based on a hazard ratio of .47.

Lanreotide is the first and only FDA approved antitumor therapy demonstrating a statistically significant progression-free survival benefit in a combined population of patients with GEP-NETS.

Other medications that block particular secretory effects can sometimes relieve symptoms.

NUT midline carcinoma is very resistant to standard chemotherapy treatments. The tumor may initially respond to therapy, and then rapid recurrence is experienced, followed by death. A multimodality approach to treatment is advocated, especially since most patients present with advanced disease. Treatment must be tailored to the individual patient, with several promising new targeted molecular therapies in clinical trials. Specific molecular targeted therapies (BET inhibitors and histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi)) may help to yield growth arrest of the neoplastic cells. Overall, there is a mean survival of 6–9 months.

In general, treatment for soft-tissue sarcomas depends on the stage of the cancer. The stage of the sarcoma is based on the size and grade of the tumor, and whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes or other parts of the body (metastasized). Treatment options for soft-tissue sarcomas include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

- Surgery is the most common treatment for soft-tissue sarcomas. If possible, the doctor will remove the cancer and a safe margin of the healthy tissue around it. It is important to obtain a margin free of tumor to decrease the likelihood of local recurrence and give the best chance for eradication of the tumor. Depending on the size and location of the sarcoma, it may, rarely, be necessary to remove all or part of an arm or leg.

- Radiation therapy may be used either before surgery to shrink tumors or after surgery to kill any cancer cells that may have been left behind. In some cases, it can be used to treat tumours that cannot be surgically removed. In multiple studies, radiation therapy has been found to improve the rate of local control, but has not had any influence on overall survival.

- Chemotherapy may be used with radiation therapy either before or after surgery to try to shrink the tumor or kill any remaining cancer cells. The use of chemotherapy to prevent the spread of soft-tissue sarcomas has not been proven to be effective. If the cancer has spread to other areas of the body, chemotherapy may be used to shrink tumors and reduce the pain and discomfort they cause, but is unlikely to eradicate the disease.

Prognosis is much worse for stage III or IV thymomas as compared with stage I and II tumors. Invasive thymomas uncommonly can also metastasize, generally to pleura, bones, liver or brain in approximately 7% of cases. Patients with stage III and IV tumors may nonetheless survive for several years with appropriate oncological management.

Patients who have undergone thymectomy for thymoma should be warned of possible severe side effects after yellow fever vaccination. This is probably caused by inadequate T-cell response to live attenuated yellow fever vaccine. Deaths have been reported.

Many treatment options for cancer exist. The primary ones include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy, targeted therapy and palliative care. Which treatments are used depends on the type, location and grade of the cancer as well as the patient's health and preferences. The treatment intent may or may not be curative.

Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with one or more cytotoxic anti-neoplastic drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized regimen. The term encompasses a variety of drugs, which are divided into broad categories such as alkylating agents and antimetabolites. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents act by killing cells that divide rapidly, a critical property of most cancer cells.

Targeted therapy is a form of chemotherapy that targets specific molecular differences between cancer and normal cells. The first targeted therapies blocked the estrogen receptor molecule, inhibiting the growth of breast cancer. Another common example is the class of Bcr-Abl inhibitors, which are used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Currently, targeted therapies exist for breast cancer, multiple myeloma, lymphoma, prostate cancer, melanoma and other cancers.

The efficacy of chemotherapy depends on the type of cancer and the stage. In combination with surgery, chemotherapy has proven useful in cancer types including breast cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, osteogenic sarcoma, testicular cancer, ovarian cancer and certain lung cancers. Chemotherapy is curative for some cancers, such as some leukemias, ineffective in some brain tumors, and needless in others, such as most non-melanoma skin cancers. The effectiveness of chemotherapy is often limited by its toxicity to other tissues in the body. Even when chemotherapy does not provide a permanent cure, it may be useful to reduce symptoms such as pain or to reduce the size of an inoperable tumor in the hope that surgery will become possible in the future.

Levothyroxine is a stereoisomer of thyroxine which is degraded much slower and can be administered once daily in patients with hypothyroidism.

A recommend surveillance program for Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 has been suggested by the International Guidelines for Diagnosis and Therapy of MEN syndromes group.

In breast cancer survivors, it is recommended to first consider non-hormonal options for menopausal effects, such as bisphosphonates or selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) for osteoporosis, and vaginal estrogen for local symptoms. Observational studies of systemic hormone replacement therapy after breast cancer are generally reassuring. If hormone replacement is necessary after breast cancer, estrogen-only therapy or estrogen therapy with an intrauterine device with progestogen may be safer options than combined systemic therapy.

An alternative using high intensity focused ultrasound or HIFU has recently proved its effectiveness in treating benign thyroid nodules. This method is noninvasive, without general anesthesia and is performed in an ambulatory setting. Ultrasound waves are focused and produce heat enabling to destroy thyroid nodules.

Focused ultrasounds have been used to treat other benign tumors, such as breast fibroadenomas and fibroid disease in the uterus.

Drugs used after and in addition to surgery are called adjuvant therapy. Chemotherapy or other types of therapy prior to surgery are called neoadjuvant therapy. Aspirin may reduce mortality from breast cancer.

There are currently three main groups of medications used for adjuvant breast cancer treatment: hormone-blocking agents, chemotherapy, and monoclonal antibodies.

Hormone blocking therapy

Chemotherapy

Monoclonal antibodies

Treatment options include:

1. Therapies to eliminate the underlying cancer, such as chemotherapy, radiation and surgery.

2. Therapies to reduce or slow neurological degeneration. In this scenario, rapid diagnosis and treatment are critical for the patient to have the best chance of recovery. Since these disorders are relatively rare, few doctors have seen or treated paraneoplastic neurological disorders (PNDs). Therefore, PND patients should consult with a specialist with experience in diagnosing and treating paraneoplastic neurological disorders.

A specific prognosis for those afflicted with paraneoplastic syndromes links to each unique case presented. Thus, prognosis for paraneoplastic syndromes may vary greatly. For example, paraneoplastic pemphigus often included infection as a major cause of death. Paraneoplastic pemphigus is one of the three major subtypes that affects IgG autoantibodies that are characteristically raised against desmoglein 1 and desmoglein 3 (which are cell-cell adhesion molecules found in desmosomes). Underlying cancer or irreversible system impairment, seen in acute heart failure or kidney failure, may result in death as well.

Thymic carcinoma is a rare type of thymus gland cancer. It usually spreads, has a high risk of recurrence, and has a poor survival rate. Thymic carcinoma is divided into subtypes, depending on the types of cells in which the cancer began. Also called type C thymoma.

Carcinoid (also carcinoid tumor) is a slow-growing type of neuroendocrine tumor originating in the cells of the neuroendocrine system. In some cases, metastasis may occur. Carcinoid tumors of the midgut (jejunum, ileum, appendix, and cecum) are associated with carcinoid syndrome.

Carcinoid tumors are the most common malignant tumor of the appendix, but they are most commonly associated with the small intestine, and they can also be found in the rectum and stomach. They are known to grow in the liver, but this finding is usually a manifestation of metastatic disease from a primary carcinoid occurring elsewhere in the body. They have a very slow growth rate compared to most malignant tumors. The median age at diagnosis for all patients with neuroendocrine tumors is 63 years.

Due to the high risk of recurrence and ensuing problems, close monitoring of dogs undergoing chemotherapy is important. The same is true for dogs that have entered remission and ceased treatment. Monitoring for disease and remission/recurrence is usually performed by palpation of peripheral lymph nodes. This procedure detects gross changes in peripheral lymph nodes. Some of the blood tests used in diagnosing lymphoma also offer greater objectivity and provide an earlier warning of an animal coming out of remission.

Complete cure is rare with lymphoma and treatment tends to be palliative, but long remission times are possible with chemotherapy. With effective protocols, average first remission times are 6 to 8 months. Second remissions are shorter and harder to accomplish. Average survival is 9 to 12 months. The most common treatment is a combination of cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, L-asparaginase, and doxorubicin. Other chemotherapy drugs such as chlorambucil, lomustine (CCNU), cytosine arabinoside, and mitoxantrone are sometimes used in the treatment of lymphoma by themselves or in substitution for other drugs. In most cases, appropriate treatment protocols cause few side effects, but white blood cell counts must be monitored.

Allogeneic and autologous stem cell transplantations (as is commonly done in humans) have recently been shown to be a possible treatment option for dogs. Most of the basic research on transplantation biology was generated in dogs. Current cure rates using stem cell therapy in dogs approximates that achieved in humans, 40-50%.

When cost is a factor, prednisone used alone can improve the symptoms dramatically, but it does not significantly affect the survival rate. The average survival times of dogs treated with prednisone and untreated dogs are both one to two months. Using prednisone alone can cause the cancer to become resistant to other chemotherapy agents, so it should only be used if more aggressive treatment is not an option.

Isotretinoin can be used to treat cutaneous lymphoma.

Radiation therapy is often part of the treatment for DLBCL. It is commonly used after the completion of chemotherapy. Radiation therapy alone is not an effective treatment for this disease.

Current treatment typically includes R-CHOP, which consists of the traditional CHOP, to which rituximab has been added. This regimen has increased the rate of complete response for DLBCL patients, particularly in elderly patients.R-CHOP is a combination of one monoclonal antibody (rituximab), three chemotherapy agents (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine), and one steroid (prednisone). These drugs are administered intravenously, and the regimen is most effective when it is administered multiple times over a period of months. People often receive this type of chemotherapy through a PICC line (peripherally inserted central catheter) in their arm near the elbow or a surgically implanted venous access port. The number of cycles of chemotherapy given depends on the stage of the disease — patients with limited disease typically receive three cycles of chemotherapy, while patients with extensive disease may need to undergo six to eight cycles. A recent approach involves obtaining a PET scan after the completion of two cycles of chemotherapy, to assist the treatment team in making further decisions about the future course of treatment.Older people often have more difficulty tolerating therapy than younger people. Lower intensity regimens have been attempted in this age group.

In terms of treatment for individuals with Nezelof syndrome, which was first characterized in 1964, includes the following(how effective bone marrow transplant is uncertain) :

- Antimicrobial therapy

- IV immunoglobulin

- Bone marrow transplantation

- Thymus transplantation

- Thymus factors

Children with cancer are at risk for developing various cognitive or learning problems. These difficulties may be related to brain injury stemming from the cancer itself, such as a brain tumor or central nervous system metastasis or from side effects of cancer treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Studies have shown that chemo and radiation therapies may damage brain white matter and disrupt brain activity.

The original route of treatment for MALT is antibiotics to treat an underlying infection such as H.pylori. H.pylori is directly related to the development of this lymphoma. Since most patients respond well to this treatment, then no further treatment is needed. If the lymphoma is not linked to an infection, then radiotherapy and chemotherapy are needed. If the disease is more advanced, then immunoradiotherapy with chemotherapy will be needed. Among the common first-line treatments are bendamustine plus rituximab and R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone). Recently, antibiotic therapy such as doxycycline has been shown to be effective in marginal zone lymphoma that affects the area around the eye ("ocular adnexal marginal zone lymphoma").

Treatment is dependent if the lymphoma is causing issues in regards to the overall health of the individual. Since this a slow moving cancer, many patients start treatment when the symptoms appear. If the individual tests positive for hepatitis C, then anti-viral treatment is suggested since it will often get rid of the lymphoma as well. If further treatment is required the options include chemotherapy, monoclonal antibodies, and/or radiation. Radiation therapy is used for stage I and II nodal marginal zone NHL. Clinical trials show success in treatment when using drugs such as bendamustine and lenalidomida in combination with rituximab.

Prostate cancer is the second most common urological malignancy to be associated with paraneoplastic syndromes after renal cell carcinoma. Paraneoplastic syndromes of this nature tend to occur in the setting of late stage and aggressive tumors with poor overall outcomes (endocrine manifestations, neurological entities, dermatological conditions, and other syndromes). A vast majority of prostate cancer cases (over 70%) document paraneoplastic syndrome as a major clinical manifestation of prostate cancer; and interestingly (under 20%), the syndrome as an initial sign of disease progression to the castrate-resistant state. Urologist researchers identify serum markers that are associated with the syndrome in order to specific what type of therapies may work most effectively.

Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes may be related immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), one of the underlying causes in inflammatory central nervous system diseases (CNS). The central idea around such research pinpoints treatment strategies to combat cancer related outcomes in the clinical arena, specifically ICIs. Research suggests that patients who are treated with ICIs are more susceptible to CNS disease (since the mechanism of ICIs induces adverse effects on the CNS due to augmented immune responses and neurotoxicity). The purpose of this exploration was to shed light on immunotherapies and distinguishing between neurotoxicity and brain metastasis in the early stages of treatment. In other research, scientists have found that paraneoplastic peripheral nerve disorders (autoantibodies linked to multifocal motor neuropathy) may provide important clinical manifestations. This is especially important for patients who experience inflammatory neuropathies since solid tumors are often associated with peripheral nerve disorders. CV2 autoantibodies, which target dihydropyriminase-related protein 5 (DRP5, or CRMP5) are also associated with a variety of paraneoplastic neurological syndromes, including sensorimotor polyneuropathies. Interestingly, patients undergoing immune therapies or tumor removal respond very well to antibodies that target CASPR2 (to treat nerve hyperexcitability and neuromyotonia).

In the case of paraneoplastic Cushing's syndrome arising from a small cel carcinoma of the endometrium, paraneoplastic syndrome has been seen to interfere with standard treatments and lead to unexpected complications and clinical course. The purpose of this clinical case demonstrates the aggressive nature of the neuroendocrine small cell carcinoma with rapid invasion and extra-uterine spread. The researchers raise recognition for timely recognition of paraneoplastic syndrome, which in this particular case use a combinatorial therapy of etoposide and cisplatin chemotherapy to save the 32-year old female patient's life (presented with persistent migraine-like headache, palpitations, progressive nausea and vomiting, photo- and sonobia, menometrorrhagia and concomitant general fatigue).