A number of medications may be used to control symptoms. NSAIDs can be used to reduce painful menstrual periods. Oral contraceptive pills may be prescribed to reduce uterine bleeding and cramps. Anemia may be treated with iron supplementation.

Levonorgestrel intrauterine devices are effective in limiting menstrual blood flow and improving other symptoms. Side effects are typically few as the levonorgestrel (a progestin) is released in low concentration locally. While most levongestrel-IUD studies concentrated on treatment of women without fibroids a few reported good results specifically for women with fibroids including a substantial regression of fibroids.

Cabergoline in a moderate and well-tolerated dose has been shown in two studies to shrink fibroids effectively. The mechanism of action responsible for how cabergoline shrinks fibroids is unclear.

Ulipristal acetate is a synthetic selective progesterone receptor modulator (SPRM) that has tentative evidence to support its use for presurgical treatment of fibroids with low side-effects. Long-term UPA-treated fibroids have shown volume reduction of about 70%. In some cases UPA alone is used to relieve symptoms without surgery.

Danazol is an effective treatment to shrink fibroids and control symptoms. Its use is limited by unpleasant side effects. Mechanism of action is thought to be antiestrogenic effects. Recent experience indicates that safety and side effect profile can be improved by more cautious dosing.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs cause temporary regression of fibroids by decreasing estrogen levels. Because of the limitations and side effects of this medication, it is rarely recommended other than for preoperative use to shrink the size of the fibroids and uterus before surgery. It is typically used for a maximum of 6 months or less because after longer use they could cause osteoporosis and other typically postmenopausal complications. The main side effects are transient postmenopausal symptoms. In many cases the fibroids will regrow after cessation of treatment, however, significant benefits may persist for much longer in some cases. Several variations are possible, such as GnRH agonists with add-back regimens intended to decrease the adverse effects of estrogen deficiency. Several add-back regimes are possible, tibolone, raloxifene, progestogens alone, estrogen alone, and combined estrogens and progestogens.

Progesterone antagonists such as mifepristone have been tested, there is evidence that it relieves some symptoms and improves quality of life but because of adverse histological changes that have been observed in several trials it can not be currently recommended outside of research setting. Fibroid growth has recurred after antiprogestin treatment was stopped.

Aromatase inhibitors have been used experimentally to reduce fibroids. The effect is believed to be due partially by lowering systemic estrogen levels and partially by inhibiting locally overexpressed aromatase in fibroids. However, fibroid growth has recurred after treatment was stopped. Experience from experimental aromatase inhibitor treatment of endometriosis indicates that aromatase inhibitors might be particularly useful in combination with a progestogenic ovulation inhibitor.

Most fibroids do not require treatment unless they are causing symptoms. After menopause fibroids shrink and it is unusual for them to cause problems.

Symptomatic uterine fibroids can be treated by:

- medication to control symptoms

- medication aimed at shrinking tumors

- ultrasound fibroid destruction

- myomectomy or radio frequency ablation

- hysterectomy

- uterine artery embolization

In those who have symptoms uterine artery embolization and surgical options have similar outcomes with respect to satisfaction.

Uterine adenosarcomas are typically treated with a total abdominal hysterectomy and bilateral salpingoophorectomy (TAH-BSO). Ovary sparing surgery may be done in women wishing to preserve fertility.

Broadly speaking, surgical management of adenomyosis is split into two categories: uterine-sparing and non-uterine-sparing procedures. Uterine-sparing procedures are surgical operations that do not include surgical removal of the uterus. Some uterine-sparing procedures have the benefit of improving fertility or retaining the ability to carry a pregnancy to term. In contrast, some uterine-sparing procedures worsen fertility or even result in complete sterility. The impact of each procedure on a woman's fertility is of particular concern and typically guides the selection. Non-uterine-sparing procedures, by definition, include surgical removal of the uterus and consequently they will all result in complete sterility.

Pain associated with ovarian cysts may be treated in several ways:

- Pain relievers such as acetaminophen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or opioids.

- While hormonal birth control prevents the development of new cysts in those who frequently get them, it is not useful for the treatment of current cysts.

Adenomyosis can only be cured definitively with surgical removal of the uterus. As adenomyosis is responsive to reproductive hormones, it reasonably abates following menopause when these hormones decrease. In women in their reproductive years, adenomyosis can typically be managed with the goals to provide pain relief, to restrict progression of the process, and to reduce significant menstrual bleeding.

Ovarian pregnancies are dangerous and prone to internal bleeding. Thus, when suspected, intervention is called for.

Traditionally, an explorative laparotomy was performed, and once the ovarian pregnancy was identified, an oophorectomy or salpingo-oophorectomy was performed, including the removal of the pregnancy. Today, the surgery can often be performed via laparoscopy. The extent of surgery varies according to the amount of tissue destruction that has

occurred. Patients with an ovarian pregnancy have a good prognosis for future fertility and therefore conservative surgical management is advocated. Further, in attempts to preserve ovarian tissue, surgery may involve just the removal of the pregnancy with only a part of the ovary. This can be accomplished by an ovarian wedge resection.

Ovarian pregnancies have been successfully treated with methotrexate since it was introduced in the management of ectopic pregnancy in 1988.

An ovarian pregnancy can develop together with a normal intrauterine pregnancy; such a heterotopic pregnancy will call for expert management as not to endanger the intrauterine pregnancy.

Fertility may sometimes be restored by removal of adhesions, depending on the severity of the initial trauma and other individual patient factors. Operative hysteroscopy is used for visual inspection of the uterine cavity during adhesion dissection (adhesiolysis). However, hysteroscopy is yet to become a routine gynaecological procedure and only 15% of US gynecologists perform office hysteroscopy {Isaacson, 2002}. Adhesion dissection can be technically difficult and must be performed with care in order to not create new scars and further exacerbate the condition. In more severe cases, adjunctive measures such as laparoscopy are used in conjunction with hysteroscopy as a protective measure against uterine perforation. Microscissors are usually used to cut adhesions. Electrocauterization is not recommended.

As IUA frequently reform after surgery, techniques have been developed to prevent recurrence of adhesions. Methods to prevent adhesion reformation include the use of mechanical barriers (Foley catheter, saline-filled Cook Medical Balloon Uterine Stent, IUCD) and gel barriers (Seprafilm, Spraygel, autocrosslinked hyaluronic acid gel Hyalobarrier) to maintain opposing walls apart during healing {Tsapanos, 2002}; {Guida, 2004};{Abbott, 2004}, thereby preventing the reformation of adhesions. Antibiotic prophylaxis is necessary in the presence of mechanical barriers to reduce the risk of possible infections. A common pharmacological method for preventing reformation of adhesions is sequential hormonal therapy with estrogen followed by a progestin to stimulate endometrial growth and prevent opposing walls from fusing together {Roge, 1996}. However, there have been no randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing post-surgical adhesion reformation with and without hormonal treatment and the ideal dosing regimen or length of estrogen therapy is not known. The absence of prospective RCTs comparing treatment methods makes it difficult to recommend optimal treatment protocols. Furthermore, diagnostic severity and outcomes are assessed according to different criteria (e.g. menstrual pattern, adhesion reformation rate, conception rate, live birth rate). Clearly, more comparable studies are needed in which reproductive outcome can be analysed systematically.

Follow-up tests (HSG, hysteroscopy or SHG) are necessary to ensure that adhesions have not reformed. Further surgery may be necessary to restore a normal uterine cavity.

According to a recent study among 61 patients, the overall rate of adhesion recurrence was 27.9% and in severe cases this was 41.9%. Another study found that postoperative adhesions reoccur in close to 50% of severe AS and in 21.6% of moederate cases. Mild IUA, unlike moderate to severe synechiae, do not appear to reform.

Choice of treatment is largely dictated by the clinical situation. A ruptured interstitial pregnancy is a medical emergency that requires an immediate surgical intervention either by laparoscopy or laparotomy to stop the bleeding and remove the pregnancy.

Surgical methods to remove the pregnancy include cornual evacuation, incision of the cornua with removal of the pregnancy (cornuostomy), resection of the cornual area or a cornual wedge resection, typically combined with an ipsilateral salpingectomy, and hysterectomy. Because of the vascularity of the interstitial region particularly during pregnancy, blood loss during surgery may be substantial. Postoperatively, patients with conservative surgical therapy are at risk for development of a persistent ectopic pregnancy due to the presence of deeply embedded surviving trophoblastic tissue; thus, monitoring of hCG levels is indicated until they become undetectable.

In patients with an asymptomatic interstitial pregnancy methotrexate has been successfully used, however, this approach may fail and result in cornual rupture of the pregnancy. Selective uterine artery embolization has been successfully performed to treat interstial pregnancies.

Although most cases of ovarian cysts involve monitoring, some cases require surgery. This may involve removing the cyst, or one or both ovaries. Technique is typically laparoscopic, unless the cyst is particularly large, or if pre-operative imaging suggests malignancy or complex anatomy. In certain situations, the cyst is entirely removed, while with cysts with low recurrence risk, younger patients, or which are in anatomically eloquent areas of the pelvis, they can be drained. Features that may indicate the need for surgery include:

- Persistent complex ovarian cysts

- Persistent cysts that are causing symptoms

- Complex ovarian cysts larger than 5 cm

- Simple ovarian cysts larger 10 cm or larger than 5 cm in postmenopausal patients

- Women who are menopausal or perimenopausal

Treatment depends on the type of ovary apoplexy and the severity of intra-abdominal bleeding, but the condition must be treated in a hospital. In the case of pain without signs of intraabdominal bleeding, conservative therapy may be initiated, which includes bed rest, antispasmodics, and physiotherapy. In the presence or suspected internal bleeding, surgery is indicated via laparoscopy or laparotomy. Other treatments may include efforts to stop the bleeding or resection of the affected portion of the ovary. However, in cases in which there is extensive damage to the ovary, it may be necessary to remove it.

After being discharged from the hospital, it is important to take steps to prevent a recurrence in the future. Such steps include avoiding risk factors or beginning a regimen of oral contraceptives to control ovarian activity.

Heterotopic pregnancy is treated with surgical removal of the ectopic gestation by salpingectomy or salpingostomy. Expectant management has been successfully applied in select cases. Successful salpingocentesis has also been reported.

Treatment is directed at the underlying condition and usually surgical.

Surgical intervention depends on the extent of the individual problem. With a didelphic uterus surgery is not usually recommended.

A uterine septum can be resected in a simple out-patient procedure that combines laparoscopy and hysteroscopy. This procedure greatly decreases the rate of miscarriage for women with this anomaly.

Surgical treatment of ovarian torsion includes laparoscopy to uncoil the torsed ovary and possibly oophoropexy to fixate the ovary which is likely to twist again. In severe cases, where blood flow is cut off to the ovary for an extended period of time, necrosis of the ovary can occur. In these cases the ovary must be surgically removed.

Patients with a unicornuate uterus may need special attention during pregnancy as pregnancy loss, fetal demise, premature birth, and malpresentation are more common. It is unproven that cerclage procedures are helpful.

A pregnancy in a rudimentary horn cannot be saved and needs to be removed with the horn to prevent a potentially fatal rupture of the horn and uterus.

Although it is unclear whether interventions before conception or early in pregnancy such as resection of the rudimentary horn and prophylactic cervical cerclage decidedly improve obstetrical outcomes, current practice suggests that such interventions may be helpful.

Patients with an ectopic pregnancy are generally at higher risk for a recurrence, however, there are no specific data for patients with an interstitial pregnancy. When a new pregnancy is diagnosed it is important to monitor the pregnancy by transvaginal sonography to assure that is it properly located, and that the surgically repaired area remains intact. Cesarean delivery is recommended to avoid uterine rupture during labor.

Therapy is based on staging and patient condition and utilizes one or more of the following approaches.

Surgery is the mainstay of therapy if feasible involving total abdominal hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy. Other approaches include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and hormonal therapy.

Prognosis is relatively poor.

A septum can be resected with surgery. Hysteroscopic removal of a uterine septum is generally the preferred method, as the intervention is relatively minor and safe in experienced hands. A follow-up imaging study should demonstrate the removal of the septum.

Tactile cold scissor metroplasty was described as a back technique for hysteroscopic challenges that interfere with proper visualization or uterine distention

It is not considered necessary to remove a septum that has not caused problems, especially in women who are not considering pregnancy. There is controversy over whether a septum should be removed prophylactically to reduce the risk of pregnancy loss prior to a pregnancy or infertility treatment.

Treatment may be delivery by caesarean section and abdominal hysterectomy if placenta accreta is diagnosed before birth. Oxytocin and antibiotics are used for post-surgical management. When there is partially separated placenta with focal accreta, best option is removal of placenta. If it is important to save the woman's uterus (for future pregnancies) then resection around the placenta may be successful. Conservative treatment can also be uterus sparing but may not be as successful and has a higher risk of complications.

Techniques include:

- Leaving the placenta in the uterus and curettage of uterus. Methotrexate has been used in this case.

- Intrauterine balloon catheterisation to compress blood vessels

- Embolisation of pelvic vessels

- Internal iliac artery ligation

- Bilateral uterine artery ligation

In cases where there is invasion of placental tissue and blood vessels into the bladder, it is treated in similar manner to abdominal pregnancy and manual placental removal is avoided. However, this may eventually need hysterectomy and/or partial cystectomy.

If the patient decides to proceed with a vaginal delivery, blood products for transfusion and an anesthesiologist are kept ready at delivery.

Drug of choice is progesterone.

Management of dysfunctional uterine bleeding predominantly consists of reassurance, though mid-cycle estrogen and late-cycle progestin can be used for mid- and late-cycle bleeding respectively.

Also, non-specific hormonal therapy such as combined high-dose estrogen and high-dose progestin can be given. Ormeloxifene is a non-hormonal medication that treats DUB but is only legally available in India.

The goal of therapy should be to arrest bleeding, replace lost iron to avoid anemia, and prevent future bleeding.

Excessive movement before any treatments or surgeries will cause excessive bleeding.

A hysterectomy may be performed in some cases.

A 2013 review concluded that there were no studies reporting on the link between intrauterine adhesions and long-term reproductive outcome after miscarriage, while similar pregnancy outcomes were reported subsequent to surgical management (e.g. D&C), medical management or conservative management (that is, watchful waiting). There is an association between surgical intervention in the uterus and the development of intrauterine adhesions, and between intrauterine adhesions and pregnancy outcomes, but there is still no clear evidence of any method of prevention of adverse pregnancy outcomes.

In theory, the recently pregnant uterus is particularly soft under the influence of hormones and hence, easily injured. D&C (including dilation and curettage, dilation and evacuation/suction curettage and manual vacuum aspiration) is a blind, invasive procedure, making it difficult to avoid endometrial trauma. Medical alternatives to D&C for evacuation of retained placenta/products of conception exist including misoprostol and mifepristone. Studies show this less invasive and cheaper method to be an efficacious, safe and an acceptable alternative to surgical management for most women. It was suggested as early as in 1993 that the incidence of IUA might be lower following medical evacuation (e.g. Misoprostol) of the uterus, thus avoiding any intrauterine instrumentation. So far, one study supports this proposal, showing that women who were treated for missed miscarriage with misoprostol did not develop IUA, while 7.7% of those undergoing D&C did. The advantage of misoprostol is that it can be used for evacuation not only following miscarriage, but also following birth for retained placenta or hemorrhaging.

Alternatively, D&C could be performed under ultrasound guidance rather than as a blind procedure. This would enable the surgeon to end scraping the lining when all retained tissue has been removed, avoiding injury.

Early monitoring during pregnancy to identify miscarriage can prevent the development of, or as the case may be, the recurrence of AS, as the longer the period after fetal death following D&C, the more likely adhesions may be to occur. Therefore, immediate evacuation following fetal death may prevent IUA.

The use of hysteroscopic surgery instead of D&C to remove retained products of conception or placenta is another alternative that could theoretically improve future pregnancy outcomes, although it could be less effective if tissue is abundant. Also, hysteroscopy is not a widely or routinely used technique and requires expertise.

There is no data to indicate that suction D&C is less likely than sharp curette to result in Asherman's. A recent article describes three cases of women who developed intrauterine adhesions following manual vacuum aspiration.

Treatment depends on the cause. In cases where malignancy is ruled out, hormone supplementation or the therapeutic use of hormonal contraception is usually recommended to induce bleeding on a regular schedule. Selective progesterone receptor modulators (SPRMs) are sometimes used to stop uterine bleeding.

Many patients with an arcuate uterus will not experience any reproductive problems and do not require any surgery. In patients with recurrent pregnancy loss thought to be caused by an arcuate uterus hysteroscopic resection can be performed.

The prognosis is determined primarily by the cancer stage. Most tumours are discovered at an early stage and have a good prognosis, especially when compared to uterine carcinosarcoma. Five year survival for stage I and stage III tumours is approximately 80% and 50% respectively.