Conservative treatment for bunions include changes in footwear, the use of orthotics (accommodative padding and shielding), rest, ice, and pain medications such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. These treatments address symptoms but do not correct the actual deformity. If the discomfort persists and is severe or when aesthetic correction of the deformity is desired, surgical correction by an orthopedic surgeon or a podiatric surgeon may be necessary.

Treatment is usually with some combination of the Ponseti or French methods. The Ponseti method includes the following: casting together with manipulation, cutting the Achilles tendon, and bracing. The Ponseti method has been found to be effective in correcting the problem in those under the age of two. The French method involves realignment and tapping of the foot is often effective but requires a lot of effort by caregivers. Another technique known as Kite does not appear as good. In about 20% of cases further surgery is required.

Surgical treatment is only initiated if there is severe pain, as the available operations can be difficult. Otherwise, high arches may be handled with care and proper treatment.

Suggested conservative management of patients with painful pes cavus typically involves strategies to reduce and redistribute plantar pressure loading with the use of foot orthoses and specialised cushioned footwear. Other non-surgical rehabilitation approaches include stretching and strengthening of tight and weak muscles, debridement of plantar callosities, osseous mobilization, massage, chiropractic manipulation of the foot and ankle, and strategies to improve balance. There are also numerous surgical approaches described in the literature that are aimed at correcting the deformity and rebalancing the foot. Surgical procedures fall into three main groups:

1. soft-tissue procedures (e.g. plantar fascia release, Achilles tendon lengthening, tendon transfer);

2. osteotomy (e.g. metatarsal, midfoot or calcaneal);

3. bone-stabilising procedures (e.g. triple arthrodesis).

Orthotics are splints or regulators while conservative measures include various footwear like gelled toe spacers, bunion/toe separators, bunion regulators, bunion splints, and bunion cushions. There are a variety of available orthotics (or orthoses) including over-the-counter or off-the-shelf commercial products and as necessary, custom-molded orthotics that are generally prescribed medical devices.

Symptoms may be treated by wearing wider shoes to relieve pressure, or patient can wear padding around the toes. Surgery is also an option, if the pain and discomfort cannot be treated, or for cosmetic reasons. In this procedure, the short metatarsal is typically cut and a piece of bone is grafted between the two ends. In some cases an external fixator may be attached to the metatarsal with pins. Within the external fixator is an adjustable screw that must be turned (per doctors' orders) to lengthen the gap between bone segments, so the bone will regrow to the appropriate shape.

Following surgery, crutches or a knee scooter should be used to keep all weight off the surgically repaired foot for 3 months. After this period, orthopedic shoes or boots may be used.

Treatment for children with Blount's disease is typically braces but surgery may also be necessary, especially for teenagers. The operation consists of removing a piece of tibia, breaking the fibula and straightening out the bone; there is also a choice of elongating the legs. If not treated early enough, the condition worsens quickly.

First options for treatment are conservative, using hot or cold packs, rest and NSAID's at first. If no improvement is made, a splint or brace can be used to keep the deviated arm straight. When none of the conservative treatments work surgical intervention is designated.

In many cases, conservative treatment consisting of physical therapy and new shoes with soft, spacious toe boxes is enough to resolve the condition, while in more severe or longstanding cases Hammertoe Surgery may be necessary to correct the deformity. The patient's doctor may also prescribe some toe exercises that can be done at home to stretch and strengthen the muscles. For example, the individual can gently stretch the toes manually, or use the toes to pick things up off the floor. While watching television or reading, one can put a towel flat under the feet and use the toes to crumple it. The doctor can also prescribe a brace that pushes down on the toes to force them to stretch out their muscles.

Non-surgical therapies include:

- Shoe modifications: wearing shoes that have a wide toe box, and avoiding those with pointed toes or high heels.

- Oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs may help in relieving the pain and inflammation.

- Injections of corticosteroid are commonly used to treat the inflammation.

- Bunionette pads placed over the affected area may help reduce pain.

- An ice pack may be applied to reduce pain and inflammation.

Surgery is often considered when pain continues for a long period with no improvement in these non-surgical therapies.

Generally, no treatment is required for idiopathic presentation as it is a normal anatomical variant in young children. Treatment is indicated when it persists beyond 3 and a half years old. In the case of unilateral presentation or progressive worsening of the curvature, when caused by rickets, the most important thing is to treat the constitutional disease, at the same time instructing the care-giver never to place the child on its feet. In many cases this is quite sufficient in itself to effect a cure, but matters can be hastened somewhat by applying splints. When the deformity arises in older patients, either from trauma or occupation, the only permanent treatment is surgery, but orthopaedic bracing can provide relief.

Using the Ponseti method, the foot deformity is corrected in stages. These stages are as follows: manipulating the foot to an improved position and then holding it with a long leg cast, then removing the cast after a week, and then manipulating the foot again. The foot position usually improves over a course of 4-6 casts. The amount of casts varies from person to person to address each individual's characteristic needs.

- The initial cast focuses on aligning the forefoot with the hindfoot as Ponseti describes the forefoot as relatively pronated in comparison to the hindfoot. Supinating the forefoot and elevating the first metatarsal improves this alignment.

- Subsequent casts are applied after stretching the foot with a focus on abducting the forefoot with lateral pressure at the talus, to bring the navicula laterally and improve the alignment of the talonavicular joint. In contrast to the Kite Method of casting, it is important to avoid constraining the calcanocuboid joint. With each additional cast, the abduction is increased and this moves the hindfoot from varus into valgus. It is important to leave the ankle in equinus until the forefoot and hindfoot are corrected.

- The final stage of casting, is to correct the equinus. After fully abducting the forefoot with spontaneous correction of the hindfoot, an attempt is made to bring the ankle up and into dorsiflexion. For the majority of children, the equinus will not fully correct with casting and a procedure is done to facilitate this final aspect of the deformity correction. The procedure is a percutaneous heel cord release or Tenotomy. Ponseti advocated for doing this in the clinic with a local anesthetic. For safety reasons, many centers perform this procedure with sedation or monitored anesthesia care. In this procedure, numbing medicine is applied, the skin is cleansed, and a small scalpel is used to divide the Achilles tendon. With a small scalpel there is minimal bleeding and no need for stitches. A small dressing is applied and a final clubfoot cast is applied with the foot in a fully corrected position. This cast is typically left in place for 3 weeks.

After correction has been achieved with casting, maintenance of correction starts with full-time (23 hours per day) use of a brace —also known as a foot abduction brace (FAB)—on both feet, regardless of whether the TEV is on one side or both, typically full-time for 3 months. After 3 months, brace wear is decreased and used mostly when sleeping for naps and at night-time. This part-time bracing is recommended until the child is 4 years of age.

Roughly 30% of children will have recurrence. A recurrence can usually be managed with repeating the casting process. Recurrence is more common when there is poor compliance with the bracing, because the muscles around the foot can pull it back into the abnormal position. Approximately 20% of infants successfully treated with the Ponseti casting method will have an imbalance between the muscles that invert the ankle (posterior tibialis and anterior tibialis muscles) and the muscles that evert the ankle (peroneal muscles). Patients with this imbalance are more prone to recurrence. After 18 months of age, this can be addressed with surgery to transfer the anterior tibialis tendon from it medial attachment (the navicula) to a more lateral position (the lateral cuneiform) to rebalance these muscle forces. While this requires a general anesthetic and subsequent casting while the tendon heals, it is a relatively minor surgery that corrects a persistent muscle imbalance while avoiding disturbance to the joints of the foot.

Because neither of the two thumb components is normal, a decision should be taken on combining which elements to create the best possible composite digit. Instead of amputating the most hypoplastic thumb, preservation of skin, nail, collateral ligaments and tendons is needed to augment the residual thumb. Surgery is recommended in the first year of life, generally between 9 and 15 months of age.

Surgical options depend on type of polydactyly.

This type of procedure is recommended for Wassel types 1 and 2 (in which both thumbs are severely hypoplastic) by some congenital hand surgeons. The technique contains a composite wedge resection of the central bone and soft-tissue. This will be achieved with approach of the lateral tissue of each thumb. The goal is to achieve a normal thumb, what concerns the size, which is possible. If the width of the nail bed is greater than 70% of the contralateral thumb, it may be split. Then the nail bed will be repaired precisely.

"Ulna reduction"

Adults with Madelung’s deformity may suffer from ulnar-sided wrist pain. Madelung's Deformity is usually treated by treating the distal radial deformity. However, if patients have a positive ulnar variance and focal wrist pathology, it’s possible to treat with an isolated ulnar-shortening osteotomy. In these patients the radial deformity is not treated.

The ulna is approached from the subcutaneous border. A plate is attached to the distal end of the ulna, to plan the osteotomy. An oblique segment is removed from the ulna, after which the distal radial-ulnar joint is freed, making sure structures stay attached to the styloid process. After this, the freed distal end is reattached to the proximal ulna with the formerly mentioned plate.

"Total DRUJ replacement"

An alternative treatment for patients with ulnar-sided wristpain is a total replacement of the distal radial-ulnar joint. There are many surgical treatments of the condition, but most of these only improve the alignment and function of the radiocarpal joint. A persistent problem in these treatments has been the stiff DRUJ. However, a prosthesis helps in managing the pain, and might also improve the range of motion of the wrist.

The procedure consists of making a hockey-stick shaped incision along the ulnar border. This incision is made between the fifth and sixth dorsal compartment. Being careful not to harm any essential structures, like the posterior interosseous nerve, the incision is continued between the extensor carpi ulnaris and the extensor digiti quinti, until the ulna is found. The ulnar head is then removed. A guide wire is then inserted in the medullary canal of the ulna, allowing centralization for a cannulated drill bit. A poly-ethylene ball, which will serve as the prosthesis, is then placed over the distal peg. After confirming full range of motion, the skin will be closed.

"Dome Osteotomy"

In case of Madelung's Deformity in conjunction with radial pain, a dome osteotomy may be conducted. For more information about this procedure, please refer to the treatment of Madelung's Deformity in children.

The treatment of arthrogryposis includes occupational therapy, physical therapy, splinting and surgery. The primary long-term goals of these treatments are increasing joint mobility, muscle strength and the development of adaptive use patterns that allow for walking and independence with activities of daily living. Since arthrogryposis includes many different types, the treatment varies between patients depending on the symptoms.

Only a few good articles exist in which a surgical technique that is used to treat arthrogryposis is described. These surgeries are explained below.

There are several types of treatment for congenital trigger thumb, conservative and surgical.

The conservative treatment consists of observation in time. Studies show that the trigger thumb spontaneously resolves in 49 months. According to Leung et al., trigger thumbs in infants resolve spontaneously in 63% of the cases. No residual deformities were found and there is no recurrence once resolved. Residual deformity is defined as persistent flexion deformities of the thumb and radial deviation at the IPJ. Extension exercises and splinting can be added to the observation. These two elements have favourable results in improvement in flexion impairment of the thumb. However, compared to observation, the benefit of merely extension exercises and splinting are still unclear.

It has been recommended to attempt conservative treatment first, before attempting surgical treatment.

The underlying disorder must be treated. For example, if a spinal disc herniation in the low back is impinging on the nerve that goes to the leg and causing symptoms of foot drop, then the herniated disc should be treated. If the foot drop is the result of a peripheral nerve injury, a window for recovery of 18 months to 2 years is often advised. If it is apparent that no recovery of nerve function takes place, surgical intervention to repair or graft the nerve can be considered, although results from this type of intervention are mixed.

Non-surgical treatments for spinal stenosis include a suitable exercise program developed by a physical therapist, activity modification (avoiding activities that cause advanced symptoms of spinal stenosis), epidural injections, and anti-inflammatory medications like ibuprofen or aspirin. If necessary, a decompression surgery that is minimally destructive of normal structures may be used to treat spinal stenosis.

Non-surgical treatments for this condition are very similar to the non-surgical methods described above for spinal stenosis. Spinal fusion surgery may be required to treat this condition, with many patients improving their function and experiencing less pain.

Nearly half of all vertebral fractures occur without any significant back pain. If pain medication, progressive activity, or a brace or support does not help with the fracture, two minimally invasive procedures - vertebroplasty or kyphoplasty - may be options.

Ankles can be stabilized by lightweight orthoses, available in molded plastics as well as softer materials that use elastic properties to prevent foot drop. Additionally, shoes can be fitted with traditional spring-loaded braces to prevent foot drop while walking. Regular exercise is usually prescribed.

Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a technique that uses electrical currents to activate nerves innervating extremities affected by paralysis resulting from spinal cord injury (SCI), head injury, stroke and other neurological disorders. FES is primarily used to restore function in people with disabilities. It is sometimes referred to as Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES)

The latest treatments include stimulation of the peroneal nerve, which lifts the foot when you step. Many stroke and multiple sclerosis patients with foot drop have had success with it. Often, individuals with foot drop prefer to use a compensatory technique like steppage gait or hip hiking as opposed to a brace or splint.

Treatment for some can be as easy as an underside "L" shaped foot-up ankle support (ankle-foot orthoses). Another method uses a cuff placed around the patient's ankle, and a topside spring and hook installed under the shoelaces. The hook connects to the ankle cuff and lifts the shoe up when the patient walks.

In some cases, foot diseases and painful conditions can be treated. Synovium hydrates the cartilage in the heal and can bring pain relief quickly. Synovium gel looks as well as strongly smells like urine, straying some consumers away. However this only occurs after expiration. Blood thinners can also work however are deemed as bad relievers by medical practitioners due to the fact that they can contribute to headaches and in some cases increase foot pain afterwards.

The timing of surgical interventions is debatable. Parents have to decide about their child in a very vulnerable time of their parenthood. Indications for early treatment are progressive deformities, such as syndactyly between index and thumb or transverse bones between the digital rays. Other surgical interventions are less urgent and can wait for 1 or 2 years.

There are a number of passive devices for enhancing limb movement, intended to be worn to aid movement and encourage muscular development. For example, the Wilmington Robotic Exoskeleton is a potential assistive device built on a back brace, shadowing the upper arm and forearm. It can be difficult to fit and heavy and awkward to wear.

Researchers at the University of Delaware are developing a light and unobtrusive therapeutic garment, suitable for babies and children, called the Playskin Lift. The garment looks like normal clothing but contains bundled steel wires under the arms, which help to push the arms toward a lifted position while allowing the wearer to move freely from that position.

When surgery is indicated, the choice of treatment is based on the classification. Table 4 shows the treatment of cleft hand divided into the classification of Manske and Halikis.

Techniques described by Ueba, Miura and Komada and the procedure of Snow-Littler are guidelines; since clinical and anatomical presentation within the types differ, the actual treatment is based on the individual abnormality.

Table 4: Treatment based on the classification of Manske and Halikis

Once the process is recognized, it should be treated via the VIPs — vascular management, infection management and prevention, and pressure relief. Aggressively pursuing these three strategies will progress the healing trajectory of the wound. Pressure relief (off-loading) and immobilization with total contact casting (TCC) are critical to helping ward off further joint destruction.

TCC involves encasing the patient’s complete foot, including toes, and the lower leg in a specialist cast that redistributes weight and pressure in the lower leg and foot during everyday movements. This redistributes pressure from the foot into the leg, which is more able to bear weight, to protect the wound, letting it regenerate tissue and heal. TCC also keeps the ankle from rotating during walking, which prevents shearing and twisting forces that can further damage the wound. TCC aids maintenance of quality of life by helping patients to remain mobile.

There are two scenarios in which the use of TCC is appropriate for managing neuropathic arthropathy (Charcot foot), according to the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society. First, during the initial treatment, when the breakdown is occurring, and the foot is exhibiting edema and erythema; the patient should not bear weight on the foot, and TCC can be used to control and support the foot. Second, when the foot has become deformed and ulceration has occurred; TCC can be used to stabilize and support the foot, and to help move the wound toward healing.

Walking braces controlled by pneumatics are also used. Surgical correction of a joint is rarely successful in the long-term in these patients. However, off-loading alone does not translate to optimal outcomes without appropriate management of vascular disease and/or infection. Duration and aggressiveness of offloading (non-weight-bearing vs. weight-bearing, non-removable vs. removable device) should be guided by clinical assessment of healing of neuropathic arthropathy based on edema, erythema, and skin temperature changes. It can take 6–9 months for the edema and erythema of the affected joint to recede.

Most flexible flat feet are asymptomatic, and do not cause pain. In these cases, there is usually no cause for concern. Flat feet were formerly a physical-health reason for service-rejection in many militaries. However, three military studies on asymptomatic adults (see section below), suggest that persons with asymptomatic flat feet are at least as tolerant of foot stress as the population with various grades of arch. Asymptomatic flat feet are no longer a service disqualification in the U.S. military.

In a study performed to analyze the activation of the tibialis posterior muscle in adults with pes planus, it was noted that the tendon of this muscle may be dysfunctional and lead to disabling weightbearing symptoms associated with acquired flat foot deformity. The results of the study indicated that while barefoot, subjects activated additional lower-leg muscles to complete an exercise that resisted foot adduction. However, when the same subjects performed the exercise while wearing arch supporting orthotics and shoes, the tibialis posterior was selectively activated. Such discoveries suggest that the use of shoes with properly fitting, arch-supporting orthics will enhance selective activation of the tibialis posterior muscle thus, acting as an adequate treatment for the undesirable symptoms of pes planus.

Rigid flatfoot, a condition where the sole of the foot is rigidly flat even when a person is not standing, often indicates a significant problem in the bones of the affected feet, and can cause pain in about a quarter of those affected. Other flatfoot-related conditions, such as various forms of tarsal coalition (two or more bones in the midfoot or hindfoot abnormally joined) or an accessory navicular (extra bone on the inner side of the foot) should be treated promptly, usually by the very early teen years, before a child's bone structure firms up permanently as a young adult. Both tarsal coalition and an accessory navicular can be confirmed by X-ray. Rheumatoid arthritis can destroy tendons in the foot (or both feet) which can cause this condition, and untreated can result in deformity and early onset of osteoarthritis of the joint. Such a condition can cause severe pain and considerably reduced ability to walk, even with orthoses. Ankle fusion is usually recommended.

Treatment of flat feet may also be appropriate if there is associated foot or lower leg pain, or if the condition affects the knees or the lower back. Treatment may include using orthoses such as an arch support, foot gymnastics or other exercises as recommended by a podiatrist/orthotist or physical therapist. In cases of severe flat feet, orthoses should be used through a gradual process to lessen discomfort. Over several weeks, slightly more material is added to the orthosis to raise the arch. These small changes allow the foot structure to adjust gradually, as well as giving the patient time to acclimatise to the sensation of wearing orthoses. Once prescribed, orthoses are generally worn for the rest of the patient's life. In some cases, surgery can provide lasting relief, and even create an arch where none existed before; it should be considered a last resort, as it is usually very time consuming and costly.

Treatment usually involves resting the affected foot, taking pain relievers and trying to avoid putting pressure on the foot. In acute cases, the patient is often fitted with a cast that stops below the knee. The cast is usually worn for 6 to 8 weeks. After the cast is taken off, some patients are prescribed arch support for about 6 months. Also, moderate exercise is often beneficial, and physical therapy may help as well.

Prognosis for children with this disease is very good. It may persist for some time, but most cases are resolved within two years of the initial diagnosis. Although in most cases no permanent damage is done, some will have lasting damage to the foot. Also, later in life, Kohler's disease can spread to the hips.