Vehicle occupants who wear seat belts have a lower incidence of TBI after a motor vehicle accident. However, if the strap is situated across the front of the neck (instead of the chest), this increases the risk of tracheal injury. Design of medical instruments can be modified to prevent iatrogenic TBI, and medical practitioners can use techniques that reduce the risk of injury with procedures such as tracheotomy.

Treatment of TBI varies based on the location and severity of injury and whether the patient is stable or having trouble breathing, but ensuring that the airway is patent so that the patient can breathe is always of paramount importance. Ensuring an open airway and adequate ventilation may be difficult in people with TBI. Intubation, one method to secure the airway, may be used to bypass a disruption in the airway in order to send air to the lungs. If necessary, a tube can be placed into the uninjured bronchus, and a single lung can be ventilated. If there is a penetrating injury to the neck through which air is escaping, the trachea may be intubated through the wound. Multiple unsuccessful attempts at conventional (direct) laryngoscopy may threaten the airway, so alternative techniques to visualize the airway, such as fiberoptic or video laryngoscopy, may be employed to facilitate tracheal intubation. If the upper trachea is injured, an incision can be made in the trachea (tracheotomy) or the cricothyroid membrane (cricothyrotomy, or cricothyroidotomy) in order to ensure an open airway. However, cricothyrotomy may not be useful if the trachea is lacerated below the site of the artificial airway. Tracheotomy is used sparingly because it can cause complications such as infections and narrowing of the trachea and larynx. When it is impossible to establish a sufficient airway, or when complicated surgery must be performed, cardiopulmonary bypass may be used—blood is pumped out of the body, oxygenated by a machine, and pumped back in. If a pneumothorax occurs, a chest tube may be inserted into the pleural cavity to remove the air.

People with TBI are provided with supplemental oxygen and may need mechanical ventilation. Employment of certain measures such as Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and ventilation at higher-than-normal pressures may be helpful in maintaining adequate oxygenation. However, such measures can also increase leakage of air through a tear, and can stress the sutures in a tear that has been surgically repaired; therefore the lowest possible airway pressures that still maintain oxygenation are typically used. Mechanical ventilation can also cause pulmonary barotrauma when high pressure is required to ventilate the lungs. Techniques such as pulmonary toilet (removal of secretions), fluid management, and treatment of pneumonia are employed to improve pulmonary compliance (the elasticity of the lungs).

While TBI may be managed without surgery, surgical repair of the tear is considered standard in the treatment of most TBI. It is required if a tear interferes with ventilation; if mediastinitis (inflammation of the tissues in the mid-chest) occurs; or if subcutaneous or mediastinal emphysema progresses rapidly; or if air leak or large pneumothorax is persistent despite chest tube placement. Other indications for surgery are a tear more than one third the circumference of the airway, tears with loss of tissue, and a need for positive pressure ventilation. Damaged tissue around a rupture (e.g. torn or scarred tissue) may be removed in order to obtain clean edges that can be surgically repaired. Debridement of damaged tissue can shorten the trachea by as much as 50%. Repair of extensive tears can include sewing a flap of tissue taken from the membranes surrounding the heart or lungs (the pericardium and pleura, respectively) over the sutures to protect them. When lung tissue is destroyed as a result of TBI complications, pneumonectomy or lobectomy (removal of a lung or of one lobe, respectively) may be required. Pneumonectomy is avoided whenever possible due to the high rate of death associated with the procedure. Surgery to repair a tear in the tracheobronchial tree can be successful even when it is performed months after the trauma, as can occur if the diagnosis of TBI is delayed. When airway stenosis results after delayed diagnosis, surgery is similar to that performed after early diagnosis: the stenotic section is removed and the cut airway is repaired.

Most head injuries are of a benign nature and require no treatment beyond analgesics and close monitoring for potential complications such as intracranial bleeding. If the brain has been severely damaged by trauma, neurosurgical evaluation may be useful. Treatments may involve controlling elevated intracranial pressure. This can include sedation, paralytics, cerebrospinal fluid diversion. Second line alternatives include decompressive craniectomy (Jagannathan et al. found a net 65% favorable outcomes rate in pediatric patients), barbiturate coma, hypertonic saline and hypothermia. Although all of these methods have potential benefits, there has been no randomized study that has shown unequivocal benefit.

Clinicians will often consult clinical decision support rules such as the Canadian CT Head Rule or the New Orleans/Charity Head injury/Trauma Rule to decide if the patient needs further imaging studies or observation only. Rules like these are usually studied in depth by multiple research groups with large patient cohorts to ensure accuracy given the risk of adverse events in this area.

In children with uncomplicated minor head injuries the risk of intra cranial bleeding over the next year is rare at 2 cases per 1 million. In some cases transient neurological disturbances may occur, lasting minutes to hours. Malignant post traumatic cerebral swelling can develop unexpectedly in stable patients after an injury, as can post traumatic seizures. Recovery in children with neurologic deficits will vary. Children with neurologic deficits who improve daily are more likely to recover, while those who are vegetative for months are less likely to improve. Most patients without deficits have full recovery. However, persons who sustain head trauma resulting in unconsciousness for an hour or more have twice the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease later in life.

Head injury may be associated with a neck injury. Bruises on the back or neck, neck pain, or pain radiating to the arms are signs of cervical spine injury and merit spinal immobilization via application of a cervical collar and possibly a long board.If the neurological exam is normal this is reassuring. Reassessment is needed if there is a worsening headache, seizure, one sided weakness, or has persistent vomiting.

To combat overuse of Head CT Scans yielding negative intracranial hemorrhage, which unnecessarily expose patients to radiation and increase time in the hospital and cost of the visit, multiple clinical decision support rules have been developed to help clinicians weigh the option to scan a patient with a head injury. Among these are the Canadian Head CT rule, the PECARN Head Injury/Trauma Algorithm, and the New Orleans/Charity Head Injury/Trauma Rule all help clinicians make these decisions using easily obtained information and noninvasive practices.

As with other types of intracranial hematomas, the blood may be removed surgically to remove the mass and reduce the pressure it puts on the brain. The hematoma is evacuated through a burr hole or craniotomy. If transfer to a facility with neurosurgery is prolonged trephination may be performed in the emergency department.

No medication is approved to halt the progression of the initial injury to secondary injury. The variety of pathological events presents opportunities to find treatments that interfere with the damage processes. Neuroprotection methods to decrease secondary injury, have been the subject of interest follows TBI. However, trials to test agents that could halt these cellular mechanisms have met largely with failure. For example, interest existed in cooling the injured brain; however, a 2014 Cochrane review did not find enough evidence to see if it was useful or not. A 2016 review found that maintaining a normal or low normal temperature appeared useful in adults but not children. High quality evidence to support targeted temperature management below normal however is poor.

In addition, drugs such as NMDA receptor antagonists to halt neurochemical cascades such as excitotoxicity showed promise in animal trials but failed in clinical trials. These failures could be due to factors including faults in the trials' design or in the insufficiency of a single agent to prevent the array of injury processes involved in secondary injury.

Other topics of research have included investigations into mannitol, dexamethasone, progesterone, xenon, barbiturates, magnesium, calcium channel blockers, PPAR-γ agonists, curcuminoids, ethanol, NMDA antagonists, caffeine.

Epidural hematoma is when bleeding occurs between the tough outer membrane covering the brain and the skull. Often there is loss of consciousness following a head injury, a brief regaining of consciousness, and then loss of consciousness again. Other symptoms may include headache, confusion, vomiting, and an inability to move parts of the body. Complications may include seizures.

The cause is typically head injury that results in a break of the temporal bone and bleeding from the middle meningeal artery. Occasionally it can occur as a result of a bleeding disorder or blood vessel malformation. Diagnosis is typically by a CT scan or MRI. When this condition occurs in the spine it is known as a spinal epidural hematoma.

Treatment in generally by urgent surgery in the form of a craniotomy or burr hole. Without treatment death typically results. The condition occurs in one to four percent of head injuries. Typically it occurs in young adults. Males are more often affected than females.

It is important to begin emergency treatment within the so-called "golden hour" following the injury. People with moderate to severe injuries are likely to receive treatment in an intensive care unit followed by a neurosurgical ward. Treatment depends on the recovery stage of the patient. In the acute stage the primary aim of the medical personnel is to stabilize the patient and focus on preventing further injury because little can be done to reverse the initial damage caused by trauma. Rehabilitation is the main treatment for the subacute and chronic stages of recovery. International clinical guidelines have been proposed with the aim of guiding decisions in TBI treatment, as defined by an authoritative examination of current evidence.

Pharmacotherapy is the utilization of drugs to treat an illness. There are several different drugs that have been used to alleviate symptoms experienced after a head injury including anti-depressants such as amitriptyline and sertraline. Use of these drugs has been associated with a decrease in depression and increased functioning in social and work environments. An antidiuretic called Desmopressin Acetate (DDAVP) has also been shown to improve memory performance in patients

Recent studies have examined the preventative effects of progesterone on brain injuries. Phase III trials are currently being conducted at 17 medical centers across the United States. Preliminary results have shown a 50% reduction in mortality in those treated with progesterone and showed an improved functional outcome.

Overall, the efficacy of pharmacotherapuetic treatments is dependent on the treatment being used and the symptoms being targeted by the treatment.

There are several different types of treatment available to those who have suffered a closed-head injury. The treatment type chosen can depend on several factors including the type and severity of injury as well as the effects that injury has on the patient.

The course of treatment differs for each patient and can include several types of treatment, depending on the patient’s specific needs.

Early treatment is vital to recovering lost motor function after an injury, but cognitive abilities can be recovered regardless of time past since injury.

Prevention of MTBI involves general measures such as wearing seat belts and using airbags in cars. Older people are encouraged to reduce fall risk by keeping floors free of clutter and wearing thin, flat, shoes with hard soles that do not interfere with balance.

Protective equipment such as headgear has been found to reduce the number of concussions in athletes and improvements in the design of helmets may decrease the number and severity further. New "Head Impact Telemetry System" technology is being placed in helmets to study injury mechanisms and may generate knowledge that will potentially help reduce the risk of concussions among American Football players. Self-reported concussion rates among U-20 and elite rugby union players in Ireland are 45–48%. Half of these injuries go unreported. Changes to the rules or enforcing existing rules in sports, such as those against "head-down tackling", or "spearing", which is associated with a high injury rate, may also prevent concussions.

A wide range of factors have been identified as being predictive of PCS, including low socioeconomic status, previous mTBI, a serious associated injury, headaches, an ongoing court case, and female gender. Being older than 40 and being female have also been identified as being predictive of a diagnosis of PCS, and women tend to report more severe symptoms. In addition, the development of PCS can be predicted by having a history of alcohol abuse, low cognitive abilities before the injury, a personality disorder, or a medical illness not related to the injury. PCS is also more prevalent in people with a history of psychiatric conditions such as clinical depression or anxiety before the injury.

Mild brain injury-related factors that increase the risk for persisting post-concussion symptoms include an injury associated with acute headache, dizziness, or nausea; an acute Glasgow Coma Score of 13 or 14; and suffering another head injury before recovering from the first. The risk for developing PCS also appears to be increased in people who have traumatic memories of the injury or expect to be disabled by the injury.

Management of post-concussion syndrome typically involves treatments addressing specific symptoms; for example, people can take pain relievers for headaches and medicine to relieve depression or insomnia. Rest is advised, but is only somewhat effective. Physical and behavioral therapy may also be prescribed for problems such as loss of balance and difficulties with attention, respectively.

Shortly after TBI, people are given anticonvulsant medication, because seizures that occur early after trauma can increase brain damage through hypoxia, excessive release of excitatory neurotransmitters, increased metabolic demands, and increased pressure within the intracranial space. Medications used to prevent seizures include valproate, phenytoin, and phenobarbital. It is recommended that treatment with anti-seizure medication be initiated as soon as possible after TBI. Prevention of early seizures differs from that of late seizures, because the aim of the former is to prevent damage caused by the seizures, whereas the aim of the latter is to prevent epileptogenesis. Strong evidence from clinical trials suggests that antiepileptic drugs given within a day of injury prevent seizures within the first week of injury, but not after. For example, a 2003 review of medical literature found phenytoin to be preventative of early, but probably not late PTS. In children, anticonvulsants may be ineffective for both early and late seizures. For unknown reasons, prophylactic use of antiepileptic drugs over a long period is associated with an increased risk for seizures. For these reasons, antiepileptic drugs are widely recommended for a short time after head trauma to prevent immediate and early, but not late, seizures. No treatment is widely accepted to prevent the development of epilepsy. However, medications may be given to repress more seizures if late seizures do occur.

There is no clear form of treatment. Originally, bisphosphonates were expected to be of value after hip surgery but there has been no convincing evidence of benefit, despite having been used prophylactically.

Depending on the growth's location, orientation and severity, surgical removal may be possible.

Radiation Therapy.

Prophylactic radiation therapy for the prevention of heterotopic ossification has been employed since the 1970s. A variety of doses and techniques have been used. Generally, radiation therapy should be delivered as close as practical to the time of surgery. A dose of 7-8 Gray in a single fraction within 24–48 hours of surgery has been used successfully. Treatment volumes include the peri-articular region, and can be used for hip, knee, elbow, shoulder, jaw or in patients after spinal cord trauma.

Single dose radiation therapy is well tolerated and is cost effective, without an increase in bleeding, infection or wound healing disturbances.

Other possible treatments.

Certain antiinflammatory agents, such as indomethacin, ibuprofen and aspirin, have shown some effect in preventing recurrence of heterotopic ossification after total hip replacement.

Conservative treatments such as passive range of motion exercises or other mobilization techniques provided by physical therapists or occupational therapists may also assist in preventing HO. A review article looked at 114 adult patients retrospectively and suggested that the lower incidence of HO in patients with a very severe TBI may have been due to early intensive physical and occupational therapy in conjunction with pharmacological treatment. Another review article also recommended physiotherapy as an adjunct to pharmacological and medical treatments because passive range of motion exercises may maintain range at the joint and prevent secondary soft tissue contractures, which are often associated with joint immobility.

After exclusion of neck injury, observation should be continued for several hours. If repeated vomiting, worsening headache, dizziness, seizure activity, excessive drowsiness, double vision, slurred speech, unsteady walk, or weakness or numbness in arms or legs, or signs of basilar skull fracture develop, immediate assessment in an emergency department is warranted. After this initial period has passed, there is debate as to whether it is necessary to awaken the person several times during the first night, as has traditionally been done, or whether there is more benefit from uninterrupted sleep.

Physical and cognitive rest should be continued until all symptoms have resolved with most (80–90%) concussions resolving in seven to ten days, although the recovery time may be longer in children and adolescents. Cognitive rest includes reducing activities which require concentration and attention such as school work, video games, and text messaging. It has been suggested that even leisure reading can commonly worsen symptoms in children and adolescents and proposals include time off from school and attending partial days. Since students may appear 'normal', continuing education of relevant school personnel may be needed.

Those with concussion are generally prescribed rest, including adequate nighttime sleep as well as daytime rest. Rest includes both physical and cognitive rest until symptoms clear and a gradual return to normal activities at a pace that does not cause symptoms to worsen is recommended. Education about symptoms, their management, and their normal time course, can lead to an improved outcome.

For persons participating in athletics, the 2008 Zurich Consensus Statement on Concussion in Sport recommends that participants be symptom-free before restarting and then progress through a series of graded steps. These steps include:

- complete physical and cognitive rest

- light aerobic activity (less than 70% of maximum heart rate)

- sport-specific activities such as running drills and skating drills

- non-contact training drills (exercise, coordination, and cognitive load)

- full-contact practice

- full-contact games.

Only when symptom-free for 24 hours, should progression to the next step occur. If symptoms occur, the person should drop back to the previous asymptomatic level for at least another 24 hours. The emphasis is on remaining symptom free and taking it in medium steps, not on the steps themselves.

Medications may be prescribed to treat sleep problems and depression. Analgesics such as ibuprofen can be taken for headache, but paracetamol (acetaminophen) is preferred to minimize the risk of intracranial hemorrhage. Concussed individuals are advised not to use alcohol or other drugs that have not been approved by a doctor as they can impede healing. Activation database-guided EEG biofeedback has been shown to return the memory abilities of the concussed individual to levels better than the control group.

About one percent of people who receive treatment for MTBI need surgery for a brain injury. Observation to monitor for worsening condition is an important part of treatment. Health care providers recommend that those suffering from concussion return for further medical care and evaluation 24 to 72 hours after the concussive event if the symptoms worsen. Athletes, especially intercollegiate or professional, are typically followed closely by team athletic trainers during this period but others may not have access to this level of health care and may be sent home with minimal monitoring.

People may be released after assessment from hospital or emergency room to the care of a trusted person with instructions to return if they display worsening symptoms or those that might indicate an emergent condition such as: change in consciousness, convulsions, severe headache, extremity weakness, vomiting, new bleeding or deafness in either or both ears.

Prevention of PTE involves preventing brain trauma in general; protective measures include bicycle helmets and child safety seats. No specific treatment exists to prevent the development of epilepsy after TBI occurs. In the past, antiepileptic drugs were used with the intent of preventing the development of PTE. However, while antiepileptic drugs can prevent early PTS, clinical studies have failed to show that prophylactic use of antiepileptic drugs prevents the development of PTE. Why antiepileptic drugs in clinical trials have failed to stop PTE from developing is not clear, but several explanations have been offered. The drugs may simply not be capable of preventing epilepsy, or the drug trials may have been set up in a way that did not allow a benefit of the drugs to be found (e.g. drugs may have been given too late or in inadequate doses). Animal studies have similarly failed to show much protective effect of the most commonly used seizure medications in PTE trials, such as phenytoin and carbamazepine. Antiepileptic drugs are recommended to prevent late seizures only for people in whom PTE has already been diagnosed, not as a preventative measure. On the basis of the aforementioned studies, no treatment is widely accepted to prevent the development of epilepsy. However, it has been proposed that a narrow window of about one hour after TBI may exist during which administration of antiepileptics could prevent epileptogenesis (the development of epilepsy).

Corticosteroids have also been investigated for the prevention of PTE, but clinical trials revealed that the drugs did not reduce late PTS and were actually linked to an increase in the number of early PTS.

Pain, especially headache, is a common complication following a TBI. Being unconscious and lying still for long periods can cause blood clots to form (deep venous thrombosis), which can cause pulmonary embolism. Other serious complications for patients who are unconscious, in a coma, or in a vegetative state include pressure sores, pneumonia or other infections, and progressive multiple organ failure.

The risk of post-traumatic seizures increases with severity of trauma (image at right) and is particularly elevated with certain types of brain trauma such as cerebral contusions or hematomas. As many as 50% of people with penetrating head injuries will develop seizures. People with early seizures, those occurring within a week of injury, have an increased risk of post-traumatic epilepsy (recurrent seizures occurring more than a week after the initial trauma) though seizures can appear a decade or more after the initial injury and the common seizure type may also change over time. Generally, medical professionals use anticonvulsant medications to treat seizures in TBI patients within the first week of injury only and after that only if the seizures persist.

Neurostorms may occur after a severe TBI. The lower the Glasgow Coma Score (GCS), the higher the chance of Neurostorming. Neurostorms occur when the patient's Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), Central Nervous System (CNS), Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS), and ParaSympathetic Nervous System (PSNS) become severely compromised https://www.brainline.org/story/neurostorm-century-part-1-3-medical-terminology . This in turn can create the following potential life-threatening symptoms: increased IntraCranial Pressure (ICP), tachycardia, tremors, seizures, fevers, increased blood pressure, increased Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF), and diaphoresis https://www.brainline.org/story/neurostorm-century-part-1-3-medical-terminology. A variety of medication may be used to help decrease or control Neurostorm episodes https://www.brainline.org/story/neurostorm-century-part-3-3-new-way-life.

Parkinson's disease and other motor problems as a result of TBI are rare but can occur. Parkinson's disease, a chronic and progressive disorder, may develop years after TBI as a result of damage to the basal ganglia. Other movement disorders that may develop after TBI include tremor, ataxia (uncoordinated muscle movements), and myoclonus (shock-like contractions of muscles).

Skull fractures can tear the meninges, the membranes that cover the brain, leading to leaks of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). A tear between the dura and the arachnoid membranes, called a CSF fistula, can cause CSF to leak out of the subarachnoid space into the subdural space; this is called a subdural hygroma. CSF can also leak from the nose and the ear. These tears can also allow bacteria into the cavity, potentially causing infections such as meningitis. Pneumocephalus occurs when air enters the intracranial cavity and becomes trapped in the subarachnoid space. Infections within the intracranial cavity are a dangerous complication of TBI. They may occur outside of the dura mater, below the dura, below the arachnoid (meningitis), or within the brain itself (abscess). Most of these injuries develop within a few weeks of the initial trauma and result from skull fractures or penetrating injuries. Standard treatment involves antibiotics and sometimes surgery to remove the infected tissue.

Injuries to the base of the skull can damage nerves that emerge directly from the brain (cranial nerves). Cranial nerve damage may result in:

- Paralysis of facial muscles

- Damage to the nerves responsible for eye movements, which can cause double vision

- Damage to the nerves that provide sense of smell

- Loss of vision

- Loss of facial sensation

- Swallowing problems

Hydrocephalus, post-traumatic ventricular enlargement, occurs when CSF accumulates in the brain, resulting in dilation of the cerebral ventricles and an increase in ICP. This condition can develop during the acute stage of TBI or may not appear until later. Generally it occurs within the first year of the injury and is characterized by worsening neurological outcome, impaired consciousness, behavioral changes, ataxia (lack of coordination or balance), incontinence, or signs of elevated ICP.

Any damage to the head or brain usually results in some damage to the vascular system, which provides blood to the cells of the brain. The body can repair small blood vessels, but damage to larger ones can result in serious complications. Damage to one of the major arteries leading to the brain can cause a stroke, either through bleeding from the artery or through the formation of a blood clot at the site of injury, blocking blood flow to the brain. Blood clots also can develop in other parts of the head. Other types of vascular complications include vasospasm, in which blood vessels constrict and restrict blood flow, and the formation of aneurysms, in which the side of a blood vessel weakens and balloons out.

Fluid and hormonal imbalances can also complicate treatment. Hormonal problems can result from dysfunction of the pituitary, the thyroid, and other glands throughout the body. Two common hormonal complications of TBI are syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone and hypothyroidism.

Another common problem is spasticity. In this situation, certain muscles of the body are tight or hypertonic because they cannot fully relax.

While exercise is used to maintain muscle, bone and cardiac health during spaceflight, its effects on ICP and IOP have yet to be determined. The effects of resistive exercise on the development of ICP remains controversial. An early investigation showed that the brief intrathoractic pressure increase during a Valsalva maneuver resulted in an associated rise in ICP. Two other investigations using transcranial Doppler ultrasound techniques showed that resistive exercise without a Valsalva maneuver resulted in no change in peak systolic pressure or ICP. The effects of resistive exercise in IOP are less controversial. Several different studies have shown a significant increase in IOP during or immediately after resistive exercise.

There is much more information available regarding aerobic exercise and ICP. The only known study to examine ICP during aerobic exercise by invasive means showed that ICP decreased in patients with intracranial hypertension and those with normal ICP. They suggested that because aerobic exercise is generally done without Valsalva maneuvers, it is unlikely that ICP will increase during exercise. Other studies show global brain blood flow increases 20-30% during the transition from rest to moderate exercise.

More recent work has shown that an increase in exercise intensity up to 60% VOmax results in an increase in CBF, after which CBF decreases towards (and sometimes below) baseline values with increasing exercise intensity.

Concussions in England's professional rugby union are the most common injury gained. Concussion can occur where an individual experiences a minor injury to the head. Commonly occurring in high contact sporting activities; American football, boxing, and rugby. It can also occur in recreational activities like horse riding, jumping, cycling, and skiing. The reason being that it doesn't have to be something to strike you in the proximity of your brain, but can also be caused by rapid change of movement, giving the skull not enough time to move with your body, causing your brain to press against your skull. With rugby being such a contact and fast moving sport, it is no wonder why there is concussion and other head injuries occurring. With the development of equipment and training methods, these will help benefit the players on the field know what could happen and how they can help with preventing it.

A link between increased ICP and altered sodium and water retention was suggested by a report in which 77% of IIH patients had evidence of peripheral edema and 80% with orthostatic retention of sodium and water. Impaired saline and water load excretions were noted in the upright position in IIH patients with orthostatic edema compared to lean and obese controls without IIH. However, the precise mechanisms linking orthostatic changes to IIH were not defined, and many IH patients do not have these sodium and water abnormalities. Astronauts are well known to have orthostatic intolerance upon reentry to gravity after long-duration spaceflight, and the dietary sodium on orbit is also known to be in excess of 5 grams per day in some cases. The Majority of the NASA cases did have high dietary sodium during their increment. The ISS program is working to decrease in-flight dietary sodium intake to less than 3 grams per day. Prepackaged foods for the International Space Station were originally high in sodium at 5300 mg/d. This amount has now been substantially reduced to 3000 mg/g as a result of NASA reformulation of over ninety foods as a conscious effort to reduce astronaut sodium intake.

Once taken off the field of play due to possible concussion, being unconscious, or showing the symptoms post game, getting medical advice as soon as possible is recommended. At the hospital or medical practice, the player will be under observation, if they are experiencing a headache, mild pain killers will be given. The medical professional will request that no food or drink is to be consumed until advised. They will then assess whether the player needs an x-ray, to check for any possible cervical vertebrae damage, or a computerised axial tomography (CT Scan) to check for any brain or cranium damage. With a mild head injury being sent home to take care and doing activities slower than usual, and maintaining painkillers. If symptoms of concussion don't disappear in the average of seven to ten days, then seek medical advice again as injury could be worse. In post-concussion syndrome, symptoms do not resolve for weeks, months, or years after a concussion, and may occasionally be permanent. About 10% to 20% of people have post concussion syndrome for more than a month.

Head injuries in sports of any level (junior, amateur, professional) are the most dangerous and sickening kind of injuries that can occur in sport, and are becoming more common in Australian sport. Concussions are the most common side effect of a head injury and are defined as "temporary unconsciousness or confusion and other symptoms caused by a blow to the head." A concussion also falls under the category of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). Especially in contact sports like Australian rules football and Rugby issues with concussions are prevalent, and methods to deal with, prevent and treat concussions are continuously being updated and researched to deal with the issue. Concussions pose a serious threat to the patients’ mental and physical health, as well as their playing career, and can result in lasting brain damage especially if left untreated. The signs that a player may have a concussion are: loss of consciousness or non-responsiveness, balance problems (unsteadiness on feet, poor co-ordination), a dazed, blank or vacant look and/or confusion and unawareness of their surroundings. Of course the signs are relevant only after the player experiences a blow to the head.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI, physical trauma to the brain) can cause a variety of complications, health effects that are not TBI themselves but that result from it. The risk of complications increases with the severity of the trauma; however even mild traumatic brain injury can result in disabilities that interfere with social interactions, employment, and everyday living. TBI can cause a variety of problems including physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral complications.

Symptoms that may occur after a concussion – a minor form of traumatic brain injury – are referred to as post-concussion syndrome.

It is not known whether PTS increase the likelihood of developing PTE. Early PTS, while not necessarily epileptic in nature, are associated with a higher risk of PTE. However, PTS do not indicate that development of epilepsy is certain to occur, and it is difficult to isolate PTS from severity of injury as a factor in PTE development. About 3% of patients with no early seizures develop late PTE; this number is 25% in those who do have early PTS, and the distinction is greater if other risk factors for developing PTE are excluded. Seizures that occur immediately after an insult are commonly believed not to confer an increased risk of recurring seizures, but evidence from at least one study has suggested that both immediate and early seizures may be risk factors for late seizures. Early seizures may be less of a predictor for PTE in children; while as many as a third of adults with early seizures develop PTE, the portion of children with early PTS who have late seizures is less than one fifth in children and may be as low as one tenth. The incidence of late seizures is about half that in adults with comparable injuries.