Usually the sequestration is removed after birth via surgery. In most cases this surgery is safe and effective; the child will grow up to have normal lung function.

In a few instances, fetuses with sequestrations develop problematic fluid collections in the chest cavity. In these situations a Harrison catheter shunt can be used to drain the chest fluid into the amniotic fluid.

In rare instances where the fetus has a very large lesion, resuscitation after delivery can be dangerous. In these situations a specialized delivery for management of the airway compression can be planned called the EXIT procedure, or a fetal laser ablation procedure can be performed. During this minimally invasive fetal intervention, a small needle is inserted into the sequestration, and a laser fiber is targeted at the abnormal blood vessel going to the sequestration. The goal of the operation is to use laser energy to stop the blood flow to the sequestration, causing it to stop growing. Ideally, after the surgery, the sequestration steals less blood flow from the fetus, and the heart and lungs start growing more normally as the sequestration shrinks in size and the pleural effusion goes away.

The treatment for this is a wedge resection, segmentectomy, or lobectomy via a VATS procedure or thoracotomy.

Pulmonary sequestrations usually get their blood supply from the thoracic aorta.

Management has three components: interventions before delivery, timing and place of delivery, and therapy after delivery.

In some cases, fetal therapy is available for the underlying condition; this may help to limit the severity of pulmonary hypoplasia. In exceptional cases, fetal therapy may include fetal surgery.

A 1992 case report of a baby with a sacrococcygeal teratoma (SCT) reported that the SCT had obstructed the outlet of the urinary bladder causing the bladder to rupture in utero and fill the baby's abdomen with urine (a form of ascites). The outcome was good. The baby had normal kidneys and lungs, leading the authors to conclude that obstruction occurred late in the pregnancy and to suggest that the rupture may have protected the baby from the usual complications of such an obstruction. Subsequent to this report, use of a vesicoamniotic shunting procedure (VASP) has been attempted, with limited success.

Often, a baby with a high risk of pulmonary hypoplasia will have a planned delivery in a specialty hospital such as (in the United States) a tertiary referral hospital with a level 3 neonatal intensive-care unit. The baby may require immediate advanced resuscitation and therapy.

Early delivery may be required in order to rescue the fetus from an underlying condition that is causing pulmonary hypoplasia. However, pulmonary hypoplasia increases the risks associated with preterm birth, because once delivered the baby requires adequate lung capacity to sustain life. The decision whether to deliver early includes a careful assessment of the extent to which delaying delivery may increase or decrease the pulmonary hypoplasia. It is a choice between expectant management and active management. An example is congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation with hydrops; impending heart failure may require a preterm delivery. Severe oligohydramnios of early onset and long duration, as can occur with early preterm rupture of membranes, can cause increasingly severe PH; if delivery is postponed by many weeks, PH can become so severe that it results in neonatal death.

After delivery, most affected babies will require supplemental oxygen. Some severely affected babies may be saved with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Not all specialty hospitals have ECMO, and ECMO is considered the therapy of last resort for pulmonary insufficiency. An alternative to ECMO is high-frequency oscillatory ventilation.

There is still much debate to whether pulmonary sequestration is a congenital problem or acquired through reccurent pulmonary infection. It is widely believed that extralobar pulmonary sequestrations are a result of prenatal pulmonary malformation while intralobar pulmonary sequestrations can develop due to reccurent pulmonary infections in adolescents and young adults.

The tissues in the mediastinum will slowly resorb the air in the cavity so most pneumomediastinums are treated conservatively. Breathing high flow oxygen will increase the absorption of the air.

If the air is under pressure and compressing the heart, a needle may be inserted into the cavity, releasing the air.

Surgery may be needed to repair the hole in the trachea, esophagus or bowel.

If there is lung collapse, it is imperative the affected individual lies on the side of the collapse, although painful, this allows full inflation of the unaffected lung.

In 1908, Maude Abbott documented pulmonary hypoplasia occurring with certain defects of the heart. In 1915, Abbott and J. C. Meakins showed that pulmonary hypoplasia was part of the differential diagnosis of dextrocardia. In 1920, decades before the advent of prenatal imaging, the presence of pulmonary hypoplasia was taken as evidence that diaphragmatic hernias in babies were congenital, not acquired.

It is most commonly caused by:

- Oesophageal rupture, for example in Boerhaave syndrome

- Asthma or other conditions leading to alveolar rupture

- Bowel rupture, where air in the abdominal cavity tracts up into the chest.

It has also been associated with:

- "Mycoplasma pneumoniae" pneumonia

- obesity

It can be induced to assist thoracoscopic surgery. It can be caused by a pulmonary barotrauma resulting when a person moves to or from a higher pressure environment, such as when a SCUBA diver, a free-diver or an airplane passenger ascends or descends.

In rare cases, pneumomediastinum may also arise as a result of blunt chest trauma (e.g. car accidents, fights, over pressure of breathing apparatus), while still evolving in the same fashion as the spontaneous form.

Pneumomediastinum is most commonly seen in otherwise healthy young male patients and may not be prefaced by a relevant medical history of similar ailments.

The mediastinum (from Medieval Latin "mediastinus", "midway") is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity surrounded by loose connective tissue, as an undelineated region that contains a group of structures within the thorax. The mediastinum contains the heart and its vessels, the esophagus, trachea, phrenic and cardiac nerves, the thoracic duct, thymus and lymph nodes of the central chest.

Respiratory disease is a common and significant cause of illness and death around the world. In the US, approximately 1 billion "common colds" occur each year. A study found that in 2010, there were approximately 6.8 million emergency department visits for respiratory disorders in the U.S. for patients under the age of 18. In 2012, respiratory conditions were the most frequent reasons for hospital stays among children.

In the UK, approximately 1 in 7 individuals are affected by some form of chronic lung disease, most commonly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which includes asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Respiratory diseases (including lung cancer) are responsible for over 10% of hospitalizations and over 16% of deaths in Canada.

In 2011, respiratory disease with ventilator support accounted for 93.3% of ICU utilization in the United States.

Respiratory disease is a medical term that encompasses pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, and includes conditions of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of breathing. Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, to life-threatening entities like bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, acute asthma and lung cancer.

The study of respiratory disease is known as pulmonology. A doctor who specializes in respiratory disease is known as a pulmonologist, a chest medicine specialist, a respiratory medicine specialist, a respirologist or a thoracic medicine specialist.

Respiratory diseases can be classified in many different ways, including by the organ or tissue involved, by the type and pattern of associated signs and symptoms, or by the cause of the disease.

A baby with a prenatally diagnosed cystic hygroma should be delivered in a major medical center equipped to deal with neonatal complications, such as a neonatal intensive care unit. An obstetrician usually decides the method of delivery. If the cystic hygroma is large, a cesarean section may be performed. After birth, infants with a persistent cystic hygroma must be monitored for airway obstruction. A thin needle may be used to reduce the volume of the cystic hygroma to prevent facial deformities and airway obstruction. Close observation of the baby by a neonatologist after birth is recommended. If resolution of the cystic hygroma does not occur before birth, a pediatric surgeon should be consulted.

Cystic hygromas that develop in the third trimester, after thirty weeks gestation, or in the postnatal period are usually not associated with chromosome abnormalities. There is a chance of recurrence after surgical removal of the cystic hygroma. The chance of recurrence depends on the extent of the cystic hygroma and whether its wall was able to be completely removed.

Treatments for removal of cystic hygroma are surgery or sclerosing agents which include:

- Bleomycin

- Doxycycline

- Ethanol (pure)

- Picibanil (OK-432)

- Sodium tetradecyl sulfate

Acute cardiogenic pulmonary edema often responds rapidly to medical treatment. Positioning upright may relieve symptoms. Loop diuretics such as furosemide or bumetanide are administered, often together with morphine or diamorphine to reduce respiratory distress. Both diuretics and morphine may have vasodilator effects, but specific vasodilators may be used (particularly intravenous glyceryl trinitrate or ISDN) provided the blood pressure is adequate.

Continuous positive airway pressure and bilevel positive airway pressure (BIPAP/NIPPV) has been demonstrated to reduce the need of mechanical ventilation in people with severe cardiogenic pulmonary edema, and may reduce mortality.

It is possible for cardiogenic pulmonary edema to occur together with cardiogenic shock, in which the cardiac output is insufficient to sustain an adequate blood pressure. This can be treated with inotropic agents or by intra-aortic balloon pump, but this is regarded as temporary treatment while the underlying cause is addressed.

Mediastinal fibrosis most common cause is idiopathic mediastinal fibrosis; less commonly histoplasmosis tuberculosis or unknown. It is characterized by invasive, calcified fibrosis centered on lymph nodes that block major vessels and airways. In Europe, this disease is exceptionally rare. More cases are seen

in USA where the disease may often be associated with histoplasmosis.

In those with underlying heart disease, effective control of congestive symptoms prevents pulmonary edema.

Dexamethasone is in widespread use for the prevention of high altitude pulmonary edema. Sildenafil is used as a preventive treatment for altitude-induced pulmonary edema and pulmonary hypertension, the mechanism of action is via phosphodiesterase inhibition which raises cGMP, resulting in pulmonary arterial vasodilation and inhibition of smooth muscle cell proliferation. While this effect has only recently been discovered, sildenafil is already becoming an accepted treatment for this condition, in particular in situations where the standard treatment of rapid descent has been delayed for some reason.

Pneumopericardium is a medical condition where air enters the pericardial cavity. This condition has been recognized in preterm neonates, in which it is associated with severe lung pathology, after vigorous resuscitation, or in the presence of assisted ventilation. This is a serious complication, which if untreated may lead to cardiac tamponade and death. Pneumomediastinum, which is the presence of air in the mediastinum, may mimic and also coexist with pneumopericardium.

It can be congenital, or introduced by a wound.

Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy is a bilateral enlargement of the lymph nodes of pulmonary hila. It is a radiographic term that describes the enlargement of mediastinal lymph nodes and is most commonly identified by a chest x-ray.

Besides complications of surgery and anesthesia in general, there may be drainage, swelling, or redness of the incision, gagging or coughing during eating or drinking, or pneumonia due to aspiration of food or liquids. Undesirable complications are estimated to occur in 10-30% of cases. If medical therapy is unsuccessful and surgery cannot be performed due to concurrent disease (such as heart or lung problems) or cost, euthanasia may be necessary if the animal's quality of life is considered unacceptable due to the disease.

Mild cases are managed by limiting activity, keeping a healthy body weight, and avoiding exposure to high ambient temperatures. Mild sedatives can be used to decrease anxiety and panting and therefore improve respiration. Corticosteroids may also be administered in acute cases to decrease inflammation and edema of the larynx.

Severe acute symptoms, such as difficulty breathing, hyperthermia, or aspiration pneumonia, must be stabilized with sedatives and oxygen therapy and may require steroid or antibiotic medications. Sometimes a tracheotomy is required to allow delivery of oxygen. Once the patient is stabilized, surgical treatment may be beneficial especially when paralysis occurs in both aretynoid cartilages (bilateral paralysis). The surgery (aretynoid lateralization, or a "laryngeal tieback") consists of suturing one of the aretynoid cartilages in a maximally abducted (open) position. This reduces the signs associated with inadequate ventilation (such as exercise intolerance or overheating) but may exacerbate the risk of aspiration and consequent pneumonia. Tying back only one of the aretynoid cartilages instead of both helps reduce the risk of aspiration. Afterwards the dog will still sound hoarse, and will need to be managed in the same way as those with mild cases of LP.

Recent studies have found that many dogs with laryngeal paralysis have decreased motility of their esophagus. Animals with a history of regurgitation or vomiting should be fully evaluated for esophageal or other gastrointestinal disorders. Dogs with megaesophagus or other conditions causing frequent vomiting or regurgitation are at high risk for aspiration pneumonia after laryngeal tie-back. Permanent tracheostomy is an alternative surgical option for these dogs to palliate their clincical signs.

With the exception of a few case reports describing survival without surgery, the mortality of untreated Boerhaave syndrome is nearly 100%. Its treatment includes immediate antibiotic therapy to prevent mediastinitis and sepsis, surgical repair of the perforation, and if there is significant fluid loss it should be replaced with IV fluid therapy since oral rehydration is not possible. Even with early surgical intervention (within 24 hours) the risk of death is 25%.

Treatment for cystic hygroma involves the removal of the abnormal tissue; however complete removal may be impossible without removing other normal areas. Surgical removal of the tumor is the typical treatment provided, with the understanding that additional removal procedures will most likely be required as the lymphangioma grows. Most patients need at least two procedures done for the removal process to be achieved. Recurrence is possible but unlikely for those lesions able to be removed completely via excisional surgery. Radiotherapy and chemical cauteries are not as effective with the lymphangioma than they are with the hemangioma. Draining lymphangiomas of fluid provides only temporary relief, so they are removed surgically. Cystic Hygroma can be treated with OK432 (Picibanil).

The least invasive and most effective form of treatment is now performed by interventional radiologists. A sclerosing agent, such as 1% or 3% sodium tetradecyl sulfate, doxycycline, or ethanol, may be directly injected into a lymphocele. "All sclerosing agents are thought to work by ablating the endothelial cells of the disrupted lymphatics feeding into the lymphocele."

Lymphangioma circumscription can be healed when treated with a flashlamp pulsed dye laser, although this can cause port-wine stains and other vascular lesions.

The mediastinum is the cavity that separates the lungs from the rest of the chest. It contains the heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and aorta. The mediastinum has three main parts: the anterior mediastinum (front), the middle mediastinum, and the posterior mediastinum (back).

The most common mediastinal masses are neurogenic tumors (20% of mediastinal tumors), usually found in the posterior mediastinum, followed by thymoma (15-20%) located in the anterior mediastinum.

Masses in the anterior portion of the mediastinum can include thymoma, lymphoma, pheochromocytoma, germ cell tumors including teratoma, thyroid tissue, and parathyroid lesions. Masses in this area are more likely to be malignant than those in other compartments.

Masses in the posterior portion of the mediastinum tend to be neurogenic in origin, and in adults tend to be of neural sheath origin including neurilemomas and neurofibromas.

Lung cancer typically spreads to the lymph nodes in the mediastinum.

The mechanism responsible for pneumopericardium is the ‘Macklin effect’ – There is initially an increased pressure gradient between the alveoli and the interstitial space. Increased pressure leads to alveolar rupture, resulting in air getting through to the pericapillary interstitial pulmonary space. This space is continuous with the peribronchial and pulmonary perivascular sheaths. From here, the air tracks to the hilum of the lung and then to the mediastinum. In case of a pericardial tear, this air enters the pericardial cavity and pneumopericardium develops. The condition may remain asymptomatic or may progress to life-threatening conditions like tension pneumopericardium or cardiac tamponade.

Treatment of the flail chest initially follows the principles of advanced trauma life support. Further treatment includes:

- Good pain management includes intercostal blocks and avoiding opioid pain medication as much as possible. This allows much better ventilation, with improved tidal volume, and increased blood oxygenation.

- Positive pressure ventilation, meticulously adjusting the ventilator settings to avoid pulmonary barotrauma.

- Chest tubes as required.

- Adjustment of position to make the person most comfortable and provide relief of pain.

- Aggressive pulmonary toilet

Surgical fixation can help in significantly reducing the duration of ventilatory support and in conserving the pulmonary function.

A person may be intubated with a double lumen tracheal tube. In a double lumen endotracheal tube, each lumen may be connected to a different ventilator. Usually one side of the chest is affected more than the other, so each lung may require drastically different pressures and flows to adequately ventilate.

The prognosis for lymphangioma circumscriptum and cavernous lymphangioma is generally excellent. This condition is associated with minor bleeding, recurrent cellulitis, and lymph fluid leakage. Two cases of lymphangiosarcoma arising from lymphangioma circumscriptum have been reported; however, in both of the patients, the preexisting lesion was exposed to extensive radiation therapy.

In cystic hygroma, large cysts can cause dysphagia, respiratory problems, and serious infection if they involve the neck. Patients with cystic hygroma should receive cytogenetic analysis to determine if they have chromosomal abnormalities, and parents should receive genetic counseling because this condition can recur in subsequent pregnancies.

Complications after surgical removal of cystic hygroma include damage to the structures in the neck, infection, and return of the cystic hygroma.

The following are causes of BHL:

- Sarcoidosis

- Infection

- Tuberculosis

- Fungal infection

- Mycoplasma

- Intestinal Lipodystrophy (Whipple's disease)

- Malignancy

- Lymphoma

- Carcinoma

- Mediastinal tumors

- Inorganic dust disease

- Silicosis

- Berylliosis

- Extrinsic allergic alveolitis

- Such as bird fancier's lung

- Less common causes also exist:

- Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis

- Human immunodeficiency virus

- Extrinsic allergic alveolitis

- Adult-onset Still's disease

The death rate of people with flail chest depends on the severity of their condition, ranging from 10 to 25%.