Accorrding to Frisch & Simonsen (2016), "the foreskin is protective against urinary stricture disease" (meatal stenosis). Frisch & Simonsen (2016) call for a "thorough reassessment of the burden of urethral troubles and other adverse outcomes after non-therapeutic circumcision of boys."

Saeedi "et al". (2017) propose long-term follow-up of circumcision with ultrasonography "to detect meatal stenosis before permanent renal damage occurs."

Numerous studies over a long period of time clearly indicate that male circumcision contributes to the development of urethral stricture. Among circumcised males, reported incidence of meatal stricture varies. Griffiths "et al". (1985) reported an incidence of 2.8 percent. Sörensen & Sörensen (1988) reported 0 percent. Cathcart "et al". (2006) reported an incidence of 0.55 percent. Yegane "et al". (2006) reported an incidence of 0.9 percent. Van Howe (2006) reported an incidence of 7.29 percent. In Van Howe's study, all cases of meatal stenosis were among circumcised boys. Simforoosh "et al". (2010) reported an incidence of 0.55 percent. According to Emedicine (2016), the incidence of meatal stenosis runs from 9 to 20 percent. Frisch & Simonsen (2016) placed the incidence at 5 to 20 percent of circumcised boys.

Penile Revascularization is a specialized vascular-surgical treatment option for Erectile Dysfunction. The 2009 International Consultation on Sexual Dysfunctions recommended that revascularization be limited to nonsmoker, nondiabetic men younger than 55 years of age with isolated stenosis of the internal pudendal artery with absence of venous leak.

Patients with persistent erectile dysfunction after revascularization may benefit from repeat penile duplex ultrasound and pelvic angiography to evalauate the status of the bypass graft and to exclude the presence of a PASS as the cause. The prevalence of an aberrant obturator artery arising from the inferior epigastric artery is approximately 10.5%. If an aberrant obturator artery is visualized arising from the inferior epigastric artery prior to surgical penile revascularization, consideration should be given toward using an alternative source artery or to embolization to avoid the creation of a Penile Artery Shunt Syndrome encountered in this described case.

Percutaneous Coil Embolization of the aberrant obturator artery was performed. Arterial flow rapidly improved through the left dorsal penile artery, and brisk opacification was seen through to the glans penis. Post-procedure, the patient experienced an immediate improvement in erectile function.

Endoscopic injection involves applying a gel around the ureteral opening to create a valve function and stop urine from flowing back up the ureter. The gel consists of two types of sugar-based molecules called dextranomer and hyaluronic acid. Trade names for this combination include Deflux and Zuidex. Both constituents are well-known from previous uses in medicine. They are also biocompatible, which means that they do not cause significant reactions within the body. In fact, hyaluronic acid is produced and found naturally within the body.

Medical treatment entails low dose antibiotic prophylaxis until resolution of VUR occurs. Antibiotics are administered nightly at half the normal therapeutic dose. The specific antibiotics used differ with the age of the patient and include:

- Amoxicillin or ampicillin – infants younger than 6 weeks

- Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole) – 6 weeks to 2 months

After 2 months the following antibiotics are suitable:

- Nitrofurantoin {5–7 mg/kg/24hrs}

- Nalidixic acid

- Bactrim

- Trimethoprim

- Cephalosporins

Urine cultures are performed 3 monthly to exclude breakthrough infection. Annual radiological investigations are likewise indicated. Good perineal hygiene, and timed and double voiding are also important aspects of medical treatment. Bladder dysfunction is treated with the administration of anticholinergics.

Treatment of cervical stenosis involves opening or widening the cervical canal. The condition may improve on its own following the vaginal delivery of a baby.

Cervical canal widening can be termporarily achieved by the insertion of dilators into the cervix. If the stenosis is caused by scar tissue, a laser treatment can be used to vaporize the scarring.

Finally, the surgical enlargement of the cervical canal can be performed by hysteroscopic shaving of the cervical tissue.

The general purpose of the following treatment methods is to divert the flow of CSF from the blocked aqueduct, which is causing the buildup of CSF, and allow the flow to continue. Another goal of these treatments is to reduce the stress within the ventricles. Studies have not shown that either of the following treatments results in a higher IQ of the patient, and there is not statistical difference in a patient's quality of life based on treatment method. The following treatment methods are not used for aqueductal stenosis caused by tumor compression; if the obstruction is a direct result of tumor compression, CSF flow may be normalized by the surgical removal of the tumor.

An extracranial shunt is essentially a sturdy tube with a catheter on one end to drain the third ventricle. The shunt also has a valve which serves to maintain one-way flow of the CSF and regulates the flow rate. The end with the catheter is placed in the third ventricle to drain the excess CSF and the other end is placed in the peritoneal cavity or atrium of the heart (making it a ventriculoperitoneal or ventriculoatrial shunt, respectively). The excess CSF which is diverted to a cavity is then reabsorbed by the surrounding tissue where it is drained to.

The procedure to insert this device is a technically straightforward endoscopic surgery with a low mortality rate (essentially 0% mortality since the 1970s). If the shunt has an adjustable valve the current method of setting the valve pressure is to choose one setting, observe the patient to see if CSF flow improves and the symptoms lessen over time, and adjust the pressure setting as needed if improvement isn't seen. For example, if there is not enough CSF flow, another surgery is performed to lower the valve pressure so that less force needs to be applied to open the valve and thereby drain more CSF.

This treatment method has several possible problems with it (with a 50% failure rate in 2 years), and unfortunately shunt malfunctions and associated complications cause a death rate of 1.2% per year. Problems which can necessitate a secondary surgery to fix them include: mechanical failure, incorrect catheter size, inappropriate valve drainage pressure, and infection.

- Inappropriate valve pressure can lead to "overdraining" or "underdraining", both of which should be treated by adjusting the valve pressure. Overdraining occurs when the valve pressure is too low and CSF flows out of the third ventricle too quickly. The ventricle then collapses and blood vessles can be torn in the process. This in turn can lead to headache, hemorrhage, or slit ventricle syndrome. Underdraining occurs when the valve pressure is too high and CSF flows out too slowly. This results in symptoms of hydrocephalus as the CSF is still collecting rather than being absorbed or diverted.

- Risk of infection is due to the fact that a foreign object is being introduced into the body. Infection can have symptoms of fever and soreness of the neck and shoulders.

Hypospadias repair can be done in full-term, healthy infants at any time from 3 months of age. Premature babies generally have surgery done at 6 months or older. Using these guidelines, most babies can undergo repair as same-day surgery, without need to stay in the hospital afterwards.

The results of surgery are probably not influenced by the age at which repair is done, but older children are more likely to recall the event. Teens and adults typically spend one night in the hospital after surgery.

Hormones potentially increase the size of the penis, and have been used in children with proximal hypospadias who have a smaller penis. Numerous articles report testosterone injections or topical creams increase the length and circumference of the penis. However, few studies discuss the impact of this treatment on the success of corrective surgery, with conflicting results. Therefore, the role, if any, for preoperative hormone stimulation is not clear at this time.

Infantile pyloric stenosis is typically managed with surgery; very few cases are mild enough to be treated medically.

The danger of pyloric stenosis comes from the dehydration and electrolyte disturbance rather than the underlying problem itself. Therefore, the baby must be initially stabilized by correcting the dehydration and the abnormally high blood pH seen in combination with low chloride levels with IV fluids. This can usually be accomplished in about 24–48 hours.

Intravenous and oral atropine may be used to treat pyloric stenosis. It has a success rate of 85-89% compared to nearly 100% for pyloromyotomy, however it requires prolonged hospitalization, skilled nursing and careful follow up during treatment. It might be an alternative to surgery in children who have contraindications for anesthesia or surgery, or in children whose parents do not want surgery.

Cervical stenosis may be present from birth or may be caused by other factors:

- Surgical procedures performed on the cervix such as colposcopy, cone biopsy, or a cryosurgery procedure

- Trauma to the cervix

- Repeated vaginal infections

- Atrophy of the cervix after menopause

- Cervical cancer

- Radiation

- Cervical nabothian cysts

The definitive treatment of pyloric stenosis is with surgical pyloromyotomy known as Ramstedt's procedure (dividing the muscle of the pylorus to open up the gastric outlet). This surgery can be done through a single incision (usually 3–4 cm long) or laparoscopically (through several tiny incisions), depending on the surgeon's experience and preference.

Today, the laparoscopic technique has largely supplanted the traditional open repairs which involved either a tiny circular incision around the navel or the Ramstedt procedure. Compared to the older open techniques, the complication rate is equivalent, except for a markedly lower risk of wound infection. This is now considered the standard of care at the majority of children's hospitals across the US, although some surgeons still perform the open technique. Following repair, the small 3mm incisions are hard to see.

The vertical incision, pictured and listed above, is no longer usually required, though many incisions have been horizontal in the past years.

Once the stomach can empty into the duodenum, feeding can begin again. Some vomiting may be expected during the first days after surgery as the gastrointestinal tract settles. Rarely, the myotomy procedure performed is incomplete and projectile vomiting continues, requiring repeat surgery. Pyloric stenosis generally has no long term side-effects or impact on the child's future.

Anorectal anomalies are medical problems affecting the structure of the anus and rectum. A person with an anorectal problem would have some sort of deformative feature of the anus or rectum, collectively known as an anorectal malformation.

Examples of anorectal anomalies include:

- Anal stenosis

- Imperforate anus

- Proctitis

- Anal bleeding

- Anal fistula

- Anal cancer

- Anal itching

- Hemorrhoid (piles)

Medication (to prevent spasms) or Sphincterotomy (surgical procedure to cut the muscle) are the standard treatments for sphincter of Oddi dysfunction. One or the other may be better based on the classification of the condition.

Subglottic stenosis is a congenital or acquired narrowing of the subglottic airway. Although it is relatively rare, it is the third most common congenital airway problem (after laryngomalacia and vocal cord paralysis). Subglottic stenosis can present as a life-threatening airway emergency. It is imperative that the otolaryngologist be an expert at dealing with the diagnosis and management of this disorder. Subglottic stenosis can affect both children and adults.

Subglottic stenosis can be of three forms, namely congenital subglottic stenosis, idiopathic subglottic stenosis (ISS) and acquired subglottic stenosis. As the name suggests, congenital subglottic stenosis is a birth defect. Idiopathic subglottic stenosis is a narrowing of the airway due to an unknown cause. Acquired subglottic stenosis generally follows as an after-effect of airway intubation, and in extremely rare cases as a result of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

Subglottic stenosis is graded according to the Cotton-Meyer classification system from one to four based on the severity of the blockage.

Grade 1 – <50% obstruction

Grade 2 – 51–70% obstruction

Grade 3 – 71–99% obstruction

Grade 4 – no detectable lumen

Treatments to alleviate the symptoms of subglottic stenosis includes a daily dose of steroids such as prednisone, which reduces the inflammation of the area for better breathing. Other medications such as Methotrexate is also being tested by patients but results are pending.

In the first stage of restenosis, administering anti-platelet drugs (called IIb/IIIa inhibitors) immediately after surgery greatly reduces the chance of a thrombosis occurring.

Drug-eluting stents are now being trialled in Europe, Canada and the USA, as well as in Asia-Pacific. These stents are coated with pharmaceuticals that inhibit tissue growth and thus reduce the risk of restenosis from scar-tissue and cell proliferation.

There has been some success with these new stents in reducing the occurrence of restenosis, with clinical studies showing an incidence rate of 5% or lower.

Potential non-surgical treatments include:

- Education about the course of the condition and how to relieve symptoms

- Medicines to relieve pain and inflammation, such as acetaminophen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

- Exercise, to maintain or achieve overall good health, aerobic exercise, such as riding a stationary bicycle, which allows for a forward lean, walking, or swimming can relieve symptoms

- Weight loss, to relieve symptoms and slow progression of the stenosis

- Physical therapy, to provide education, instruction, and support for self-care; physical therapy instructs on stretching and strength exercises that may lead to a decrease in pain and other symptoms

Anal stricture or anal stenosis is a narrowing of the anal canal. It can be caused by a number of surgical procedures including: hemorrhoid removal and following anorectal wart treatment.

The definitive treatment for Heyde's syndrome is surgical replacement of the aortic valve. Recently, it has been proposed that transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) can also be used for definitive management. Direct surgical treatment of the bleeding (e.g. surgical resection of the bleeding portion of the bowel) is only rarely effective.

Medical management of symptoms is possible also, although by necessity temporary, as definitive surgical management is required to bring levels of von Willebrand factor back to normal. In severe bleeding, blood transfusions and IV fluid infusions can be used to maintain blood pressure. In addition, desmopressin (DDAVP) is known to be effective in people with von Willebrand's disease, including people with valvular heart disease. Desmopressin stimulates release of von Willebrand factor from blood vessel endothelial cells by acting on the V2 receptor, which leads to decreased breakdown of Factor VIII. Desmopressin is thus sometimes used directly to treat mild to moderate acquired von Willebrand's disease and is an effective prophylactic agent for the reduction of bleeding during heart valve replacement surgery.

If restenosis occurs without a stent, it is usually treated with more angioplasty. Once restenosis has occurred and been treated by angioplasty, the chances of restenosis occurring again are increased by a factor of 2. This treatment is also used if restenosis occurs at either the proximal or distal end of the stent.

If restenosis occurs within a stent (also known as in-stent stenosis), it may be treated with repeated angioplasty and insertion of another stent inside the original, sometimes with a drug-eluting stent.

Over the past 5 years, ISR is preferentially treated with a drug eluting balloon, which is a balloon coated with the same anticancer drugs that prevent restenosis. The Balloon avoids the need for a double layer of metal which is used when an in-stent restenosis is treated with another stent within the original stent

Alternative treatments include brachytherapy, or intracoronary radiation. The radiation kills cells and inhibits tissue growth (similar to a patient undergoing cancer therapy).

The optimal management of laryngotracheal stenosis is not well defined, depending mainly on the type of the stenosis.

General treatment options include

1. Tracheal dilation using rigid bronchoscope

2. Laser surgery and endoluminal stenting

3. Tracheal resection and laryngotracheal reconstructionr

Tracheal is used to temporarily enlarge the airway. The effect of dilation typically lasts from a few days to 6 months. Several studies have shown that as a result of mechanical dilation (used alone) may occur a high mortality rate and a rate of recurrence of stenosis higher than 90%.

Thus, many authors treat the stenosis by endoscopic excision with laser (commonly either the carbon dioxide or the neodymium: yttrium aluminum garnet laser) and then by using bronchoscopic dilatation and prolonged stenting with a T-tube (generally in silicone).

There are differing opinions on treating with laser surgery.

In very experienced surgery centers, tracheal resection and reconstruction (anastomosis complete end-to-end with or without laryngotracheal temporary stent to prevent airway collapse) is currently the best alternative to completely cure the stenosis and allows to obtain good results. Therefore, it can be considered the gold standard treatment and is suitable for almost all patients.

The narrowed part of the trachea will be cut off and the cut ends of the trachea sewn together with sutures. For stenosis of length greater than 5 cm a stent may be required to join the sections.

Late June or early July 2010, a new potential treatment was trialed at Great Ormond Street Hospital in London, where Ciaran Finn-Lynch (aged 11) received a transplanted trachea which had been injected with stem cells harvested from his own bone marrow. The use of Ciaran's stem cells was hoped to prevent his immune system from rejecting the transplant, but there remain doubts about the operation's success, and several later attempts at similar surgery have been unsuccessful.

When treated early, that is, before the onset of pulmonary hypertension, a good outcome is possible in patients with Shone’s syndrome. However, other surgical methods can be employed depending upon the patient’s medical background. The single most important determinant of poor outcome during the surgical management of patients with Shone's syndrome is the degree of involvement of the mitral valve and the presence of secondary pulmonary hypertension.

Duroziez's disease is a congenital variant of mitral stenosis. It was described in 1877 by Paul Louis Duroziez.